Comparison of Dual Employed Parents and Multicultural Family Models

In order to begin this investigation, a consideration of what has been written about families with dual employed parents will be considered. Examining the overall development of the dual income family, Hertz and Marshall (2001) argue that women's participation in the labor force began to change in the early 1960s. As noted by these authors, during this time, steady increases in the number of women in the labor force can be seen. The increases were so significant that Hertz and Marshall report that by 1970, the breadwinner/homemaker model of family life was no longer the primary family structure. Hertz and Marshall assert that the shift in women's participation in the labor force was precipitated by both economic necessity and increased ability on the part of women to secure a college education.

Not surprisingly, as the number of women entering the workforce has grown, so too have the complications associated with dual income families. Hertz and Marshall go on to report that the economic necessity for women to work has increased so significantly in recent years, that 53 percent of all working women return to work within six months after the birth of their first child. These authors further report that dual income couples with infants face the most pressing challenges of all dual income families. This is because, "(1) infant care is especially costly and difficult to find, (2) the daily demands of caring for an infant are high, and (3) employed mothers are still recovering both physically and emotionally from pregnancy and childbirth" (p. 227). Although Hertz and Marshall note that employers have responded to this issue in a positive manner-through offering extended maternity leave and benefits that allow employees to balance work and family life-the challenges associated with raising a family in the dual income framework are quite notable.

While Hertz and Marshall argue that having an infant can place a considerable strain on the dual income family, Schultz (2000) argues that subsequent children can further complicate the problems experienced by working parents. According to Schultz, the stress associated with having a second child forces many mothers to reconsider their work obligations: " (p. 68). What this effectively suggests is that having more than one child will drastically change the dynamics of the family. Schultz also notes that as older children compete for the attention of their parents, this can cause considerable tension. "Misbehavior or regression, such as 'unlearning' toilet training or having frequent tantrums," are problematic issues that can arise when older children feel that they have to compete for their parent's attention (p. 68).

Clearly, there are a number of conflicts that can arise in the context of the dual income family. However, Lewis, Tudball and Hand (2001) in their examination of family life for dual income parents note that children living in these environments report benefits to the situation as well. In their interviews with children from dual income families, these authors report that, "Some children talked about positive consequences related to their everyday lives, such as enjoying being babysat by a grandmother, or having the house to themselves after school before parents came home from work" (p. 29). Lewis and coworkers go on to note that many children also recognized that their parents' jobs were necessary in order to pay for many of the items that children wanted. These authors conclude that while there are notable challenges to child rearing in the dual income family, children can adapt in a positive manner to the environment created in this type of family.

Critically reviewing what has been written about family life in the dual income family, it becomes evident that this framework has been highly examined and conceptualized in terms of the conflicts that exist in this setting. Alexander and Baxter (2005) in their examination of the literature that has been presented on dual income families notes that there are substantial explorations of the stain and conflict that can be found in this family. Conflicts arise with respect to a myriad of issues including, but not limited to: strain associated with parents establishing a healthy home/work balance; strain associated with conflicting roles for mothers working outside of the home; strain associated with children's adaptation to having both parents work outside of the home; and strain associated with the division of labor inside the home when both parents work. These issues appear to encompass most of what has been written about dual income families in recent years.

Mack (2000) in his examination of the dual income family argues that there are other conflicts that can arise in this context. Specifically, Mack contends that dual income families face considerable social strain when it comes to meeting basic needs. According to Mack, Western culture has created an environment that undermines the development of the family. Overall, Western culture is predicated upon a drive toward economic development that does not support childrearing. According to Mack, these issues become more exacerbated when both parents chose to work outside of the home. Affordable, safe childcare is difficult for many families to find. Further, society does not offer dual income families that support that they need to ensure the security and safety of children. Mack contends that this culture in one in which parents must struggle in order to ensure that the basic daily needs of their children are met.

When the data is summarized overall, it becomes clear that there are a host of challenges that face dual income families. From determining how child care arrangements will be made to addressing the division of labor in the household, it is evident that dual income families must address a host of issues that simply were not present under the breadwinner/homemaker model of family life. One fact that appears to remain constant is that the dual income family model is one that will continue to dominate family research. The economic strains currently facing the American family are so extensive that most parents will have little choice but to seek a dual income model of the family in order to meet the basic needs of their children.

Multicultural Families

The multicultural family model is also a relatively "new" family model that is being investigated by social scientists. McClurg (2004) notes that increasing diversity in the United States coupled with the proliferation of international adoption have served as the basis for the development of the multicultural family. While this family structure can provide children with an expanded worldview with respect to development, McClurg notes that there are considerable challenges faced in this family model. In particular, McClurg argues that children living in diverse families may have some difficulty with identity formation. According to this author:

...Identity development is a continuous process that begins in early childhood and continues throughout the life span. Children actively seek exploration of themselves and their identities. With this exploration comes a natural comparison of oneself to one's parents. Children go through an expected process of assessing their family dynamics and then evaluating how exactly they fit into those dynamics. Furthermore, they often seek acceptance and companionship from those with whom they can most easily identify (p. 170).

Thus, children that have parents whose ethic identity is different from theirs can face notable challenges when it comes to identity development.

Ariel (1999) goes on to note that in the context of multicultural families, the challenges facing parents and children is often quite extraordinary. This is because many multicultural families develop beliefs and values that are not always accepted as "mainstream." To illustrate this point Ariel examines the difference in parenting practices that are used in culturally diverse families. This author notes that in some cultures, it is acceptable for parents to spank their children. In modern Western culture, the practice of spanking children is commonly frowned upon. For this reason, Ariel contends that multicultural families may face considerable strain or stress in their efforts to uphold cultural ideologies and traditions. When mainstream society does not support a diversity of opinion on parenting and child rearing practices, this can make it difficult for multicultural families to function cohesively.

The issues examined by Ariel bring to light the challenges that exist with respect to the ability of the multicultural family to fit into the large context of society. Much like children struggle to develop their identities, the family also struggles to develop an identity. In most cases, the family develops based on the cultural mandates of society. However, as society becomes more diverse, the overall spectrum of what is acceptable in terms of childrearing becomes more loosely defined. For multicultural families this is clearly a boon. As presented by Ariel however, it is evident that this social evolution is one that has been slow when compared to the development of diversity. As such, families must balance their cultural differences with what is socially acceptable in an effort to fit in to the larger context of society.

While the ability of the family to fit into the larger context of society is one that remains a pervasive challenge for multicultural families, Barrera and Corso (2002) argue that this challenge is even more pressing for children from multicultural families. "Children...are socialized into the language, roles, and rules valued in their homes as a means of providing them with the tools for becoming successful participants in their family and community" (p. 104). In many instances, children must balance the cultural traditions of the family with what is considered to be culturally acceptable in the context of modern society. For children that have not yet firmly established individual identity, Barrera and Corso contend that this process can be a notable challenge. Through this process of development, the child will encounter considerable stress as specific social and familial roles are solidified.

Finally, Quinones-Mayo and Dempsey (2004) in their examination of multicultural family issues argue that multicultural families face considerable pressure to allow their children to assimilate into the larger context of American culture. For this reason, these authors assert that parents must find a way to enable their children to become part of mainstream society while still uphold that basic tenets of familial culture that are important to the parents. In some cases, Quinones-Mayo and Dempsey report that this can cause considerable stress for both parents and children. Clearly, parents in multicultural families are faced with notable challenges when it comes to ensuring the overall health and well-being of both their children and their family.

Comparison/Contrast of the Two Models

When the dual income and multicultural families are compared and contrasted, it becomes evident that both family types face a number of challenges. These challenges are both internal and external in nature. Further, the challenges have notable impacts on the ability of parents to effectively raise children. In addition, both family frameworks face considerable external pressure, from mainstream culture. Even though the overall scope of the challenges facing families in these two frameworks are similar, it seems feasible to argue that the specific nature and context of the challenges facing families in these two categories are notably different overall.

Looking first at the challenges facing dual income families, this research demonstrates that parents face considerable stress as a result of attempting to make a dual income parenting system work. Parents must balance economic needs with the emotional and social well being of the family and of their children. Further, parents must also determine how they define their roles in the larger context of the household. Mothers and fathers must determine the division of labor in the household. In addition, they must determine how they will find times for themselves, such that they can grow as individuals. Even though working families face a number of challenges, this research does show that children's perceptions of the dual income family have been somewhat positive. As such, there is a clear indication that this family framework can produce positive outcomes for children.

With respect to the multicultural family, the challenges that face individuals in this framework appear to stem from larger issues of identity development. Multicultural families must develop an identity that allows for integration into the community but still adheres to the mandates of cultural ideas and traditions. Children in multicultural families must develop identities even though parents may share different cultural backgrounds. In each case, the issue is one of enabling individual and family development in a positive manner. Here again, it is evident that the multicultural family model can be positive for childrearing. Multicultural families can provide children with a more diverse perspective on society and culture. In the end, this will improve outcomes for both the individual child and for society as a whole.

Conclusions

Arguably, the modern family faces a number of notable challenges when it comes to childrearing and social integration into the larger context of the community. These issues are compounded when both parents work or when multicultural issues are present in the family environment. Even though both dual income and multicultural families must address the challenges presented before them, each of these family frameworks can be developed in a manner that supports the total development of the family and the individual development of each of its members. In this context, it appears as if being aware of the challenges facing these family structures provides a more integral understanding of what potential issues need to be addressed in these environments. Being aware that children from multicultural families face issues with identity development may make it easier for parents to improve outcomes for their children. As such, examining these different family frameworks clearly has ramifications for the development of the family.

References

Alexander, M., & Baxter, J. (2005). Impact of work on family life among partnered patents of young children. Family Matters, 72, 18-15.

Ariel, S. (1999). Culturally Competent Family Therapy: A General Model. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Barrera, I., & Corso, R.M. (2002). Cultural competency as skilled dialogue. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(2), 103-114.

Hertz, R., & Marshall, N.L. (2001). Working Families: The Transformation of the American Home. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Lewis, V., Tudball. J.T., & Hand, K. (2001). Family and work. Family Matters, 59, 22-29.

Mack. D. (2000). The Assault on Parenthood: How our Culture Undermines the Family. San Francisco, CA: Encounter Books.

McClurg, L. (2004). Biracial youth and their parents: Counseling considerations for family therapists. Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 12(2), 170-173.

Quinones-Mayo, Y., & Dempsey, P. (2005). Finding the bicultural balance: Immigrant Latino mothers raising "American" adolescents. Child Welfare Journal, 84(5), 649-668.

Schultz, S. (2000). A second kid is double the trouble for working parents. U.S. News & World Report, 129(24), 68.