Analytic Psychotherapy VS. Person-Centered Therapy

According to Nystul (2006), the classic psychological theories of Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, and Carl Jung laid the foundation for modern clinical practice, as their influence transcended psychology and had a significant impact on numerous aspects of daily living. Nystul suggested that because the Freudian, Adlerian, and Jungian schools of psychology each developed its own theory of personality and approach to psychotherapy, each of these theories can be effectively used as the core theory from which to develop an integrative counseling approach.

Nystul (2006) reported that the fundamental strength of Carl Jung's analytic psychotherapy lies in a comprehensive view of the human condition. Nystul observed that in this regard, the originality and audacity of Jung's thinking have few parallels in recent scientific history. Nystul also suggested that no other person, aside from Freud, has opened more conceptual windows into what Jung referred to as the soul of man.

Nystul (2006) reported that the experiential theories, including Carl Roger's person-centered therapy, Fritz Perl's Gestalt therapy, and existential therapy, focus on what the client is experiencing during the counseling process. Nystul reported that because the experiential theories are easily absorbed into other psychotherapies, these theories are particularly attractive as add-on material to counselors who share an optimistic point of view.

Nystul (2006) contended that the fundamental strength of Carl Roger's person-centered therapy lies in its effortless implementation into other psychotherapies. Nystul added that several studies have provided support for Roger's therapy and that its application to a wide range of counseling procedures directly contributed to Roger's success in the humanistic movement in counseling.

History of Analytic Psychotherapy

Nystul (2006) reported that as a child in Switzerland, Jung developed many interests, including religion, mythology, philosophy, history, literature, and archaeology. Nystul explained that although Jung struggled with what to study at the university level, he went on to obtain a medical degree from the University of Basel in 1900.

According to Nystul (2006), Jung had his first meeting with Freud in 1907 and was subsequently appointed the first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association. Nystul contended that Jung took an automatic liking to Freud and that their common areas of interest led Freud to believe that Jung was his crown prince and successor. Douglas (2005) explained that in spite of their initial compatibility, Freud and Jung eventually severed their connections due to divergent perceptions and conflicting personalities. Nystul further explained that Jung had become particularly disenchanted with Freud's emphasis on the role of sexuality in personality development and eventually decided to develop his own school of psychology, which he called analytic psychology.

Nystul (2006) reported that between the period of 1913 and 1916, Jung experienced an episode of personal distress in which he did extensive self-analysis through the interpretation of his dreams. Nystul elaborated by stating that through his self-analysis, Jung obtained a number of creative insights that had a profound effect on his theory.

Current status.

Douglas (2005) reported that as of 2004, the International Association for Analytical Psychology had over 2,500 certified analyst members in 28 countries and 48 professional societies. Douglas asserted that within Jungian studies, interest in child analysis, group work, body work, and art therapy is increasing, as is an interest in a hybrid of Jungian psychology and post-Freudian's object relations theory.

History of Person-Centered Therapy

Schultz and Schultz (2004) reported that as a child in Illinois, Roger's parents encouraged strict fundamentalist views which forced him to live by a code that was not his own. Schultz and Schultz added that Rogers always believed that his older brother was his parent's favorite and that this belief directly contributed to his overwhelming feelings of loneliness.

Nystul (2006) reported that Rogers obtained a Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology and immediately embarked on his professional career, taking a position with the Child Guidance Clinic of Rochester, New York. According to Nystul, Rogers did not begin formulating his own approach to counseling and psychotherapy until after he was appointed a full professor in psychology at Ohio State University. Nystul contended that this formulation culminated in the publication of Counseling and Psychotherapy in 1942.

Nystul (2006) reported that from 1945 to 1964, Rogers also held academic positions at the University of Chicago and the University of Wisconsin. Nystul stated that during this time, Rogers was able to continue developing his personal approach and explore its implementation in education, group process, and counseling and psychotherapy.

Current status.

Watkins (1993) noted that while several studies have provided support for Roger's theory, person-centered theory is most effectively applied in the contemporary practice of psychological testing. Watkins elaborated by stating that person-centered theory can have substantial applications in testing procedures, such as maintaining a client-centered focus to ensure that the client understands and can use test results and using facilitating conditions to maximize the client's readiness for positive involvement throughout the assessment process.

According to Cramer (1994), Roger's theory remains an effective counseling strategy due in large part to its emphasis on listening skills and core conditions. Cramer examined the relationship between self-esteem levels and having a friend who demonstrates the core conditions of empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence. Cramer concluded that a positive correlation exists between self-esteem and interactions with an individual who communicates all of these core conditions. Likewise, Merrill and Anderson (1993) found that when Roger's person-centered theory is applied to creative arts therapy, clients experience increases in risk taking, self-confidence, self-exploration, and self-awareness.

Overview of Analytic Psychotherapy

Douglas (2005) reported that analytical psychotherapy presents a map of the human psyche that incorporates conscious and unconscious elements, including both an archetypal structure and a personal structure of the unconscious. Douglas described this form of psychotherapy as a psychodynamic system that presents an expanded view of humanity's personal and collective realities. Douglas identified several therapeutic goals, including reintegration, self-knowledge, individuation, awareness of the human condition, individual responsibility, and a connection to the limited sense of self, that are necessary in regards to understanding personal and collective realities.

Basic concepts.

Nystul (2006) reported that the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious act as key concepts in Jung's theory of personality. Douglas (2005) further explained that each of these concepts contributes to the psyche, which is defined as a combination of spirit, soul, and idea that exists in reality as the sum of conscious and unconscious processes. Douglas referenced this definition in explaining that Jung mapped the psyche in terms of a whole made up of balancing and compensatory opposites.

Nystul (2006) reported that the personal unconscious is similar to Freud's preconscious in that it contains thoughts based on personal experiences that are just beyond the reach of conscious recall. Nystul further explained that the personal unconscious also includes forgotten or repressed material that had once been conscious and could become conscious in the future.

According to Nystul (2006), the ego is the center of consciousness and is composed of conscious perceptions, memories, thoughts, and feelings. Nystul suggested that as the center of consciousness, the ego is thought to provide consistency and direction in people's lives. Nystul further explained that by working in opposition with the ego, the collective unconscious directly influences emotions and behaviors, thus creating the foundation for the personality.

Douglas (2005) defined the collective unconscious as a component of personality that is made up of memory traces inherited from one's ancestral past. Nystul (2006) suggested that Jung referred to this area as collective because he believed that all people shared common images and thoughts in relation to mother, earth, birth, and death. Douglas referred to these common images as archetypes, or organizing principles, systems of readiness, and dynamic nuclei of energy. Douglass further elaborated by stating that archetypes are analogous to the circuitry pattern in the brain that organizes and structures reality and are closely related to animal instincts. Inserra (2002) recounted that some of Jung's most common Archetypes are the divine child, the earth mother, the shadow, the anima and animus, and the persona.

According to Inserra (2002), the divine child represents the true self, acting as the center of personality and providing a sense of unity, equilibrium, and stability. Inserra reported that in the same manner, the earth mother is thought to represent growth, generosity, and wisdom. Nystul (2006) defined the persona as the public self one projects as opposed to the private, personal view of oneself. Nystul described the shadow as existing in direct contrast to the persona. He referred to it as the negative side of the self that people do not want to recognize, which leads to its rejection by the conscious. Nystul referred to the anima and animus as the feminine archetype in men and the masculine archetype in women, respectively. Nystul explained that through the use of these two archetypes, Jung suggested that people have both masculine and feminine dimensions to their personalities.

Overview of Person-Centered Therapy

Raskin and Rogers (2005) reported that person-centered therapy operates from a phenomenological view of human nature, noting the inherent self-actualizing tendencies of people. According to Raskin and Rogers, a self-directed growth process will follow the provision and reception of a relationship characterized by genuineness, nonjudgmental caring, and empathy, and will result in a certain level of self-actualization.

Basic concepts.

Raskin and Rogers (2005) noted that trust is the most fundamental concept in person-centered therapy. Nystul (2006) further explained that clients can and should be trusted to define their own goals and monitor their own progress toward these goals. In addition, Nystul contended that counselors should trust in the belief that all individuals have inherent self-actualizing tendencies. Schultz and Schultz (2004) reported that even though the urge to self-actualize is innate, it can be encouraged or hindered by childhood experiences and learning. Schultz and Schultz explained that Rogers emphasized the importance of the mother-child relationship, as it contributes to the child's growing sense of self. Schultz and Schultz added that if the mother satisfies the infant's need for love, which Rogers referred to as positive regard, then the infant will tend to become a healthy personality.

Nystul (2006) identified three core conditions, including counselor congruence, empathic understanding, and unconditional positive regard, as being necessary for personal growth to occur. Nystul further explained that counselor congruence is a counselor's ability to express genuineness in terms of what he or she is experiencing and what he or she communicates. Nystul suggested that through the use of empathic understanding, the counselor attempts to understand the client from the client's internal frame of reference, which involves understanding what the client is thinking, feeling, and experiencing, and communicating this understanding to the client. Nystul also asserted that the counselor should express unconditional positive regard throughout the counseling process by communicating a sense of acceptance to the client and by accepting the client as a person worthy of respect even though the client's behavior may be inappropriate.

Jung's Theory of Personality

Douglas (2005) reported that Jung's theory of personality relies on the idea of a dynamic unity of all parts of a person. Douglas contended that, in effect, there are two components to the human psyche: One is referred to as consciousness, comprising one's intellect, emotions, senses, and desires, and the other is referred to as the personal unconscious, including elements or personal experiences we have forgotten or denied, as well as elements of the universal collective unconscious that can only be interpreted through archetypal images and complexes.

According to Douglas (2005), Jung believed that the predominant task of the first part of life is strengthening the ego. Douglas reported that the ego develops from the fragmentation of the Self archetype, which over the course of a lifetime, reintegrates at a higher level of development. Douglas explained that the ego first appears as the child gains some sense of independence in the world and eventually becomes the "I" - an entity comprising all of the qualities the person believes himself or herself to possess. According to Douglas, the task of the second part of life is to reclaim undeveloped parts of oneself, completing the individuation process by fulfilling the aspects of the personality more completely. Douglas reported that the process of individuation involves the assimilation of the shadow archetype and integration of the contrasexual anima and animus archetypes.

Douglas (2005) contended that the shadow archetype exists as a balance to the ego. Douglas further explained that the shadow is kept deep in the personal unconscious, as it contains all of the qualities that should be a part of the ego but that the ego refuses to accept or to develop. According to Douglas, the balance between the ego and the shadow archetype results in the persona, defined as the public face of an individual in society. Douglas reported that the persona protects the ego by only revealing the appropriate aspects of it, allowing for the privacy of ideas, feelings, perceptions, and thoughts.

Nystul (2006) added that Jung recognized two personality types of introverted and extroverted. Nystul reported that Jung believed that although people posses both attitudes in their personality makeup, the dominant attitude is represented in the conscious mind, leading people to react to events according to their more conscious thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition functions.

Rogers Theory of Personality.

According to Nystul (2006), Roger's theory of personality is humanistically oriented, focusing on phenomenology and the role of the self in psychological functioning. Nystul reported that Rogers held a positive view of human nature and paid special attention to the inherent self-actualizing tendencies of people.

Nystul (2006) described Roger's theory of personality in 19 propositions, all of which emphasize the role of a person's internal frame of reference and the self in understanding the dynamics of behavior. Nystul continued by asserting that people react to the phenomenal field as they experience and perceive it; thus, what a person perceives will be influenced by past experiences. In addition, Raskin and Rogers (2005) stated that people tend to behave in a manner consistent with their concept of self. Raskin and Rogers explained that in person-centered therapy, the self is the center of the organism and fosters consistency within the organism by promoting behavior that is in line with one's view of self. Nystul added that Rogers believed that the more people perceive and accept experiences, the more they will tend to be accepting and understanding of others.

Jung's Theory of Counseling and Psychotherapy

Wierzbicki (1999) reported that Jung described therapy as a process of four stages. According to Wierzbicki, Jung referred to the first stage as confession, during which clients acknowledge that they have limitations and that there are others who have similar problems. Wierzbicki referred to the second stage as elucidation, during which clients establish and explore the transference relationship with the therapist. Wierzbicki stated that during the third stage of education, clients begin to cope more successfully with situational problems due to their greater self-understanding. Wierzbicki described the fourth stage as transformation, during which the client moves on to the task of greater self-exploration and self-realization.

Nystul (2006) added that the encompassing aim of analytic psychotherapy is to help the self emerge so that the client can be free to move toward self-realization. In addition, Nystul contended that much of psychotherapy involves in-depth exploration of unconscious processes in order for clients to gain insight into the structure of their personalities. Nystul also reported that in analytic psychotherapy, the nature of the therapeutic relationship is unique. According to Nystul, analysts are required to undertake their own analysis, which aids in gaining a respect for what is involved in being a client. Nystul further explained that Jungian analysts view therapy as one person who has journeyed into the unconscious helping another person develop significant dialogue with unconscious processes.

Roger's Theory of Counseling and Psychotherapy

Wierzbicki (1999) reported that Rogers proposed six conditions that are both necessary and sufficient for therapeutic personality change to occur. Wierzbicki explained that for therapeutic change to occur, two persons must be in psychological contact, and the client must be in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable or anxious. Wierzbicki also reported that the therapist must be congruent in the relationship and must experience unconditional positive regard toward the client. Wierzbicki reported that, in addition, the therapist must experience empathic understanding of the client's internal frame of reference and must communicate this experience to the client.

Nystul (2006) contended that person-centered therapy is unique in that it doesn't attempt to resolve the client's presenting problem, rather it assists the client in the growth process to become a fully functioning individual. In addition, Rogers (1961) identified the following changes that tend to occur as the client moves toward self-actualization: the client becomes more open to experience, the client begins to engage in self-trust, the client develops an internal source of evaluation, and the client develops a willingness to continue growing. According to Rogers, a fully functioning individual is always in the state of becoming, no longer living to accept the conditions of worth they adopted from others.

Applications of Analytic Psychotherapy

Douglas (2005) reported that analytic psychotherapy is used to treat people facing the common problems of life and accompanying symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem, as well as people who have severe personality disorders or psychoses. According to Douglas, analytic psychotherapy can be applied through group therapy, marital and family therapy, movement therapy, art therapy, sand tray therapy, and child analysis. Nystul (2006) contended that Jung was skeptical of using restrictive techniques in therapy and maintained a practical approach based on the guiding principle that anything goes as long as it seems to work. Nystul illustrated by recounting that Jung frequently sang lullabies to clients who complained of difficulty falling asleep.

Nystul (2006) also stated that Jung advocated a flexible approach to psychotherapy, believing that every method of treatment should be determined by the unique needs of each individual client. Nystul reported that Jung was particularly fond of analyzing dreams, believing that it was essential to investigate the interrelationships of several dreams recorded over a period of time. According to Castellana and Donfrancesco (2005), Jung was particularly fond of sand tray therapy. Castellana and Donfrancesco reported that Jung believed that the client places objects in the sand box that are marks of the psyche, visible traits that contain actions, corporeal movements, and feelings.

Applications of Person-Centered Therapy

Raskin and Rogers (2005) reported that person-centered therapy is most effectively used with individuals diagnosed by others as psychotic or retarded, as well as with people simply seeking to experience personal growth. Raskin and Rogers also reported that this form of therapy can be applied through play interaction, group process, classroom teaching, intensive group, and peace and conflict resolution.

According to Nystul (2006), Rogers, like Jung, minimized the importance and use of techniques. Rogers (1961) contended that the importance of the counseling relationship is to be relied on in order to create the core conditions that are necessary and sufficient for self-actualization. In addition, Rogers stated that the use of listening skills is imperative in the communication of empathic understanding, serving as a guide to help the client explore inner choices.

In Conclusion

Nystul (2006) reported that several criticisms have been directed at Jungian psychology, with the existence of a collective unconscious being challenged more than any other. Nystul reported that research suggests that the concept of a collective unconscious is metaphysical, mystical, and incapable of proof. Nystul also observed that Jung's theory lacks development concepts necessary to explain the growth of the mind.

In reference to person-centered therapy, Nystul (2006) reported that unclear counseling goals create ambiguity in the counseling process. In addition, Usher (1989) contended that the person-centered approach is prone to cross-cultural bias in terms of its emphasis on self-actualization, independence, and individualism. Nystul also suggested that Roger's core conditions are not absolutely necessary, rather merely facilitative for personality change. References

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Cramer, D. (1994). Self-esteem and Rogers' core conditions in close friends: A latent variable path analysis of panel data. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 7(3), 321-337.

Douglas, C. (2005). Analytical psychotherapy. In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychotherapies (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Inserra, R. (2002). Dictionary of dreams: Understanding dreams and their messages. Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts.

Merrill, C., & Anderson, S. (1993). A content analysis of person-centered expressive therapy outcomes. The Humanistic Psychologist, 21, 354-363.

Nystul, M. S. (2006). Introduction to counseling: An art and science perspective (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Raskin, N. J., & Rogers, C. R. (2005). Person-Centered Therapy. In R. J. Corsini & D. Wedding (Eds.), Current Psychotherapies (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2004). A history of modern psychology (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Usher, C. H. (1989). Recognizing cultural bias in counseling theory and practice: The case of Rogers. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 17, 62-71.

Watkins, C. E. (1993). Person-centered theory and the contemporary practice of psychological testing. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 6(1), 59-67.

Wierzbicki, M. (1999). Introduction to clinical psychology: Scientific foundations to clinical practice. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.