Applying Theories of Personality

Analyzing personality can be a complex process, in which there can be many answers. There are many different theories that have been stated as to why people act the way the way do. These theories can be derived from such factors as genetics, environment, and biological factors (Pervin, Cervone & Oliver, 2005). The film "Groundhog Day" (1993) is the story about the main character, Phil Connors, and his experience with what he considers to be the worst day of his life. Phil is a weatherman who goes Puxatony, Pennsylvania each year to cover the events of "Groundhog Day". He has been covering the story for several years and is reluctant to do it again. This particular year he and his news crew end up stranded due to the weather.

When Phil wakes up the next day he starts to realize that something strange is happening. He is starting to see that the events from the day before are repeating themselves over and over. Once he realizes what is happening he decides that he has to do something to stop this vicious cycle from continuing. Throughout the film there are many changes that take place in Phil's personality as well as the outcome of events. The word personality can be used to refer to a person's characteristics that account for the consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving (Pervin, et al., 2005). This is a broad definition and only one of many, but regardless of what definition is used is it important to look at consistency of the behaviors. When analyzing personality structure it is possible to look at a person's personality traits. A trait construct refers to the consistency of a person's response to various situations (Pervin, et al., 2005).

There are many different theories of personality, but all of these theories look at the same basic concepts. Each theory tends to look at what, how, and why. When a theorists attempts to develop a new theory of personality they consider what the characteristics of the individual are, how the characteristics are developed, and why an individual does what they do (Pervin, et al., 2005). In the early 80's, theorist, Lewis Goldberg reviewed much of the personality research that had been conducted by fellow theorists. He concluded that any model of personality structure should contain some level of the "Big Five" dimensions of personality (Pervin, et al., 2005). Goldberg analyzed personality by evaluating an individual's traits. He felt that these traits were best described by using simple, everyday words that ordinary people could understand (Pervin, et al., 2005).

The factors that are used to describe these personality traits are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (Pervin, et al., 2005). The factors were later summarized by using the first letter of each word to create the word OCEAN (Pervin, et al., 2005). This acronym made it easier to remember each of the factors within the "Big Five". Within each of these factors is a range scale that is used to rate the level of each trait an individual possesses. In the "Big Five", openness is used as a factor to assess proactive seeking, toleration, and exploration. Characteristics of an individual who score high under this factor can include curious, creative, and imaginative (Pervin, et al., 2005). Individuals on the opposite end of the scale may be considered to be unartistic, conventional, and down to earth (Pervin, et al., 2005). The second factor, conscientiousness, assesses an individual's level of motivation, persistence, and dependability (Pervin, et al., 2005). Characteristics of a high scoring individual who falls under this factor may include ambitious, hard-working, organized, and reliable. An individual on the other end of the scale may be considered lazy, careless, and hedonistic (Pervin, et al., 2005).

Extroversion, the third factor, assesses an individual's quantity and intensity of interactions with others (Pervin, et al., 2005). A person who is considered an extrovert may be described as sociable, active, optimistic, and talkative. Individuals who score low on the scale may be described as aloof, quiet, and reserved (Pervin, et al., 2005). The fourth factor, referred to as agreeableness, assesses and individual's quality of interpersonal orientation along a continuum that ranges from compassionate to antagonistic in their actions and feelings (Pervin, et al., 2005). A person who is considered to be agreeable may possess such traits at being trusting, helpful, and forgiving. A person who is on the low scoring end of the continuum may be considered to be rude, manipulative, and ruthless (Pervin, et al., 2005). The final factor is known as neuroticism. This factor assesses adjustment vs. emotional instability. It also identifies individuals who are prone to psychological distress (Pervin, et al., 2005). A person who is considered to be neurotic may be described as emotional, insecure, nervous, and maladaptive. An individual scoring low on the scale may be described as calm, relaxed, secure, and self-satisfied (Pervin, et al., 2005). The results that are achieved when analyzing the character of Phil Connors vary throughout the film. In the beginning many of the characteristics he possesses would fall under the low scoring end of the trait scale. He could be considered cynical, rude, irritable, and maladaptive.

These traits would best place him as low scoring under the factor of agreeableness (Pervin, et al., 2005). Hans J.Eysenck shared some of his beliefs with those of Goldberg. Eysenck believed that there were three basic dimensions of personality. He referred to these dimensions as intoversion-extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (Pervin, et al., 2005). Eysenck believed that any differences people had between these traits where biological and inherited (Pervin, et al., 2005). In Eysenck's theory, inversion is the end of the introversion-extraversion dimension of personality in which a person tends to be quiet and withdrawn. Extraversion is the end of the dimension in which an individual tends to be more social, outspoken, and friendly (Pervin, et al, 2005). Neuroticism, also known as emotional stability vs. instability, is the dimension of personality that defines an individual's left of stability and anxiety depending on which end of the dimension an individual falls on (Pervin, et al., 2005). Eysenck's final dimension is known as psychoticism. At one of end of this dimension are people who tend to be insensitive and solitary. At the other end, are people who tend to care about others and those who accept social customs (Pervin, et al., 2005).

In the late 90's Paul Costa Jr. and Robert McCrae developed a theory is very similar to the Goldbergian "Big Five". They call it the five-factor theory. This theory goes beyond the "Big Five" by claiming that the five primary traits are more than just ways of describing how people are different (Pervin, et al., 2005). In the five-factor theory, these traits are seen more as a psychological structure in which everyone has in various degrees. Costa and McCrae believe that theses five factors are more of basic tendencies that everyone has to some extent (Pervin, et al., 2005). Costa and McCrae believe that the five factors have a biological basis. They also believe that behavioral differences in individuals are determined by factors such as genetics, neural structures, and brain chemistry (Pervin, et al, 2005). Costa and McCrae also believe that an individual's personality is basically stable after age 30 and personality changes that occur before age 30 are the product of an individual's genetic predisposition (Ardelt, 2000). According to Costa and McCrae the environment has some effects on certain features of an individual, such as attitudes and self-concept, but the actual traits are inherited (Pervin, et al., 2005).

If the five-factor model was to be applied to the character of Phil Connors it would almost rule out the fact that environmental factors influenced the development of his personality. According to Costa and McCrae, Phil's overall traits are hereditary; yet, some of his negative attitude could be influenced by the environment (Pervin, et al., 2005). For example, he is frustrated and tired of covering the "Groundhog Day" events each year and has developed a negative attitude towards it. On the other hand, if Phil was removed from this environment that he could possibly be a positive person in general. One theorist who has had a very large influence on the development of personality and psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud. Even though Freud developed his theory in the late 1800's it has had a great deal of impact of the intelligence of today's society (Pervin, et al., 2005). Many aspects of Freud's psychoanalytic theory have been rejected by other theorists. This is somewhat because many feel that his ideas went beyond the limits of social acceptance. Despite this, many other theorists developed a part of their theory as a reaction against Freud's psychodynamic theory (Pervin, et al., 2005).

Studying Freud's theories can better help us to understand the other theories that have been developed around it in some way. Freud began his career as a physician doing therapeutic work. He had no intentions of developing a personality theory. His goal was only to help alleviate distress in his patients (Pervin, et al., 2005). While doing this he came to realize that his patients had problems that involved conflicts among their own mental forces (Pervin, et al., 2005). With this idea in mind, Freud developed a view of personality that stated that behaviors are the result of the struggle between an individual's needs and drives (Pervin, et al., 2005). From here Freud developed his concept of psychoanalysis. A main focal point to the psychoanalytic view of an individual is Freud's belief that a person in an energy system. The source of energy comes from life and death instincts or sexual and aggressive instincts (Pervin, et al., 2005). He believed that energy flows, gets distracted, and then builds up.

According to Freud, the ultimate goal of all behaviors is to achieve pleasure, reduce tension, and release energy (Pervin, et al., 2005). Freud's theory provides two models of the structure of the mind. The first model covers the question of levels of consciousness in each individual. The second model covers Freud's three-part model of the id, ego, and superego (Pervin, et al., 2005). In Freud's first model of the structure of the mind there are three levels of awareness. These levels are the conscious, preconscious, and the unconscious (Carr, 2002). The conscious level covers anything that an individual is aware of at any moment. The preconscious level refers to mental contents that an individual could be aware of if they really wanted to (Pervin, et al., 2005). Finally, the unconscious is parts of the mind that an individual is unaware of, except under special circumstances (Pervin, et al., 2005). Freud believed the unconscious lay below the surface, but worked with the conscious and was responsible for human development (Carr). Freud's psychoanalytic theory tended to focus on contents of a person's unconscious mind. Freud believed that an individual can protect themselves against anxiety and negative thoughts by simply keeping these thoughts outside of their level of consciousness (Pervin, et al., 2005). Before Freud, not many people believed in the subconscious mind.

Now most educated people can accept the importance of the subconscious, even if they do not agree with Freud's terminology (Keogan, 2006). Freud's second model of the structure of the mind covers what is known as the id, superego, and the ego. Each of these structures refers to a different area in an individual's personality functions (Pervin, et al., 2005). According to Pervin (2005), the id represents the source of all energy drive. The id is the area of personality which seeks the release of tension, energy, and excitation. The id operates according the pleasure principle. The sole purpose of the id is to pursue pleasure and avoid pain (Pervin, et al., 2005). The superego represents the area of moral functioning. It set the standards and ideals in which people strive for. It also provides punishment as well. According to Pervin (2005), it is an internal representation of the social rules of the world. The superego works to control a person's behavior according to these rules (Pervin, et al., 2005). The third and final personality structure is the ego.

The function of the ego is to seek reality. It also works to satisfy the desires of the id but in accordance to the opportunities and constraints of the outside world and the superego (Pervin, et al., 2005). The ego operates according to the reality principle. This means that gratification can be delayed until a more appropriate time when maximum pleasure can be achieved with the least negative consequences possible (Pervin, et al., 2005). Theorist, Carl Rogers, promoted a very different approach to personality. He developed the phenomenological approach, which states that each individual perceives the world in a unique way (Pervin, et al., 2005). Rogers believed that these perceptions made up an individual's phenomenal field, which includes both conscious and unconscious perceptions. His theory differed from the psychoanalytic emphasis, because Rogers believed that the most important determinants of personality were those of the conscious (Pervin, et al., 2005).

One of the key structural concepts in the Rogerian theory is the self. According to Rogers, an individual attached meaning to external objects and experiences. He believed that each individual has an idea of what their ideal self would be like (Pevin, et al., 2005). He believed that the self actually represents a set of perceptions (Pervin, et al., 2005). Rogers also believed that people had a self-concept known as the ideal self. The ideal self is the self concept of what the individual would most like to be like (Pervin, et al., 2005). According to Rogers, people view themselves in two different components. One is the self that we believe we are now. The other is the self that we ideally see ourselves evolving into (Pervin, et al., 2005). According to Rogerian theory, an individual strives for self-consistency and to maintain their self-structure. Each individual has a value system and strives to maintain those values (Pervin, et al., 2005). Roger's developed the concept of congruence, which expresses the absence of conflict between the perceived self and experience. On the other hand, incongruence is the existence of a discrepancy between the perceived self and an experience (Pervin, et al., 2005). Carl Rogers was also responsible for developing the client-centered, non-directive approach to counseling.

Non-directive, or action, therapy is client-oriented and emphasizes the client's ability to solve their own problems (Meier and Davis, 2005). This form of client-based therapy assumes that people are generally good and are capable of assuming responsibility for their actions. People are able to make choices that will lead to independence and self-actualization (Okun, 2002). Rogers believed that the client has the capacity within themselves to understand the aspects of life that are causing pain. He believed the client also had the capacity to reorganize the direction of their own life to lessen any internal conflicts. Rogers also believed that the role of the therapist is to create atmosphere which will allow a client to do so (Kirschenbaum, 2004). It is difficult to apply the Rogerian theory to the character of Phil Connors, because he does not appear to have a very strong sense of self in the beginning of the film. Throughout the film he does strive to reach a more ideal self, but it is a process that he does not appear to be completely aware of until the end of the film. There are many different factors that can influence how personality develops. One of the greatest controversies in personality development is the nature vs. nurture controversy. The terms "nature" and nurture" and used to describe the roles of heredity and environment on human development (Powell, 2006). It is difficult to determine if outside factors influence the development of personality or if an individual's attitude and actions influences the environment.

On the other hand, some theorists believe that factors such as social class, culture, and family can contribute to the development of an individual's personality (Pervin, et al., 2005). Other theorists also believe that biological factors such as genetics and brain chemistry aid in the development of personality. In the film "Groundhog Day", the nature vs. nurture controversy is evident in the development of the personality of Phil Connors. He feels that he is suffering from a series of negative events. He does not stop to think that is reluctant, negative attitude may be the cause of the outcome of events. Once Phil realizes that he is stuck repeating the same day over and over, he then tries to use this to his advantage. It does not take long for him to realize that altering the events does not improve the results. The outcomes do start to change, but still remain negative. Eventually he realizes that this is not the answer to his problem and that he needs to find a more effective, long-term solution. The audience is not given much insight as to other factors that could be of influence to Phil's personality. It is difficult to look at factors such as social class, genetics, and brain chemistry in this particular case. The only history that is given on Phil's personality is the fact that he has attended "Groundhog Day" events in the past and this has led to a negative attitude towards these events. Interactions that Phil has with his coworkers could play a role in his attitude and personality. His realization that he needed to make a change in himself could be a result of his quest for his love-interest and coworker, Rita. Some theorists believe that personality development is influenced by events from the past. In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality development there are two major aspects.

The first aspect is that each person progresses through various stages of development. The second aspect focuses on the impact the early life events has on behaviors later in life (Pervin, et al., 2005). Freud also believed that many aspects of an individual's personality are formed within the first five years of life. In psychoanalytic theory the development of instincts is a big factor. Freud believed that the source of instincts comes from various states of bodily tensions, which focus on certain regions on the body (Pervin, et al., 2005) These regions, or erogenous zones, are the mouth, anus, and genitals. According to Freud's theory, an individual's mental and emotional development is formed based on the interactions, anxieties, and gratifications that are experienced in relation to each of these zones (Pervin, et al., 2005). According to Freud's three stages of development, the first major area of sensitivity and energy is the mouth. This first stage is referred to as the oral stage. Oral gratification can occur from such activities as eating, thumb sucking, smoking, and kissing (Pervin, et al., 2005). Freud believed that in the early oral stage a child is passive and receptive.

Later in this stage, when teeth are developed, there can be a need for more aggressive pleasures (Pervin, et al., 2005). The second stage of development is known as the anal stage and occurs around ages two and three. Freud believed that the expulsion of feces brought relief of tension and stimulation to the mucous membrane (Pervin, et al., 2005). He also believed this created a conflict between elimination and retention as well as a conflict between the pleasure in release and the pleasure in retention (Pervin et al., 2005). Freud applied this theory to conflicts that an individual may have later in life between themselves and society stating the society may place demands on an individual which violate the pleasure principle (Pervin, et al., 2005). The third and final stage of development is the phallic stage, which takes places at ages four and five. Freud believed that during this stage the focus for excitement and release of tension was found in the genitals (Pervin, et al., 2005).

Freud also felt that there were biological differences between men and women that were gender based. Erik Erikson was another leading psychoanalyst. Like Freud, he believed that the first five years of life were crucial in how an individual developed, but he also believed that human development takes place in eight continuous life-span stages (Vander Zanden, 2003). Erikson described development in psychosocial terms rather than in sexual terms (Pervin, et al., 2005). The first stage of development is trust vs. mistrust and occurs during the first year of life. During this stage a positive outcome can result in optismism and trust in one 's self and others. A negative outcome can result in pessimism and mistrust of others (Pervin, et al., 2005). The second stage of development is autonomy vs. shame and doubt. This stage occurs between two and three years of age. This is the point in an individual's life in which self-control and free will begin to develop. A negative outcome during this stage in development can result in shame and doubt (Pervin, et al., 2005). The third stage of development is known as intitiative vs. guilt and takes places between four and five years of age.

During this stage of development an individual starts to get pleasure from accomplishments and feels a sense of purpose and direction. A negative outcome during this stage could lead to guilt over achievements that are initiated (Pervin, et al., 2005). The fourth stage of development is referred to as industry vs. inferiority and takes place during latency. At this stage an individual is able to that pride in a completed project and become productive in their work. A negative outcome at this time can lead to a sense of inferiority and inadequacy (Pervin, et al., 2005). The fifth stage is identity vs. role diffusion and takes places during adolescence. At this point, an individual finds confidence within themselves. A negative outcome can result in an individual having no specific standards of expectations for themselves (Pervin, et al., 2005). The remaining stages of development take place at various stages of adulthood. The first stage of adulthood, known as early adulthood, is a period of time a person faces the idea of intimacy vs. isolation (Vander Zanden, 2003). Erikson also referred to this stage as "beyond identity." At this time the individual development their own identity must now start developing intimate relationships with others. Erikson has referred to this stage as "beyond identity". If the individual is not able to development positive, close relationships with others they may move on to live more isolated lives.

This may mean that the individual may make less desirable choices such as joining a gang, going to prison, or getting involved with drugs (Vander Zanden). The next stage is known as adulthood. This is the time an individual looks at the concept of generativity vs. stagnation (Vander Zanden, 2003). This is a period in life where an individual looks past themselves and considers society and future generations. This may include starting a family of their own (Vander Zanden). Erikson's final stage is integrity vs. despair and takes places during old age (Pervin, et al., 2005). During this time an individual evaluates their life and accomplishments they have made. (Vander Zanden, 2003). At this point in life it is ideal for the individual to feel a sense of satisfaction with their life (Vander Zanden). In the film "Groundhog Day", the audience does not witness Phil Connor's development in the earlier stages. It is not possible to know what affect, if any, his earlier stages of development had on his personality. The story starts with him in adulthood and facing the stage of generativity vs. stagnation. In the beginning of the film Phil is dealing more with stagnation. He appears to be more focused on himself and has little concern for anyone else. As the film progresses, he starts to look past himself and starts to think about others. He realizes that his attitudes and beliefs have not been working and that it is time to look for a deeper change within him. Each theorist has there own beliefs on psychopathology and behavior change. In other words, what causes the disorder in personality functioning. According to Freud, this disorder of personality tends to occur because of conflicts between the id, ego, and superego (Pervin, et al., 2005).

Eysenck believed that psychological difficulties are related to basic personality characteristics and principles of nervous system functioning (Pervin, et al., 2005). If Freud was analyzing Phil Connor's personality he would probably focus on the structure of the mind that involves the id, ego, and superego. The id could be responsible for Phil's desire to alter his life events. It may help him to realize that he is not happy with the current results and that if he alters them to his desire it may lead to a more pleasurable outcome. There is not much influence or presence from the superego until later on in the film. Phil does not seem to express a high level of moral functioning while he is attempting to use the events in his favor. For example, he attempts to alter his relationship with Rita to his advantage. He is really only thinking about doing whatever he has to in order to achieve the results that he wants. The superego does not immediately step in and show Phil that what he is doing may not be morally correct. Phil's ego does not really make itself present until towards the end of the film. It takes several attempts at altering the events for Phil to realize that this may not be realistic. The ego may be responsible for him realizing that he needs to make a change in himself, rather than the events that take place around him. Changes in personality are not always simple. There are several factors that can cause someone to change or not. According to Freud, people may use defense mechanisms to avoid change.

This is a way for an individual to distort reality and eliminate negative feels from there awareness (Pervin, et al., 2005). Some defense mechanisms describe by Freud can include isolation, repression, perceptual defense, and rationalization. Other defense mechanisms can include denial and distortion of a feeling or event. The changes that were experienced by Phil Connors took place throughout the entire film. In the beginning he used the defense mechanism of denial and did not immediately realize that there was a problem. Once he realized that something was wrong he attempted to alter life events. By doing this he was able to remain in a state of denial and was also able to distort the events. After many attempts to alter the events, he started to realize that this was not the solution. He started to accept that there was a greater problem. Once he accepted this he was able to surrender to accept his life for what it was. Throughout the movie Phil transitions from a humorous egoist into a sweet, less funny human being (Tyrangiel, 2005). The film "Groundhog Day" takes the audience through an interesting and enlightening experience by following a day in the life of Phil Connors. The audience is able to see him develop and change his personality and attitude through a series of events. Though environmental factors are not the only influence on personality development, they were the most obvious in this film. In order to account for other factors such as genetics, prior life experiences, and brain chemistry the audience would have had to follow the character through more of his life rather than the events of one day. As far as the film, it did cover a great deal of personality development in a short period of time. It leaves room for the audience to imagine how Phil could change throughout the rest of his lifetime. References Ardelt, M. (2000). Still stable after all these years? Personality stability theory revisited. Social Psychology Quarterly. Washington: December 2000. Vol. 63, Iss. 4; pg. 392, 14 pgs retrieved June 21, 2006 at http://proquest.umi.com.library.capella.edu/pqdweb?

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