Are Art Forms, Movies and Adverts Shot Exclusively from the Male's Perspective, Exclusively for Male Enjoyment?

Throughout history, the different art forms have attempted to portray images that will please, shock, interest, captivate and titillate us. From the classical paintings and sculptures to the modern art forms, one question has generated a great deal of discussion within the social sciences; is the Gaze male? In order to answer this question, perhaps it would be beneficial to first identify what the 'gaze' actually is. The Oxford Dictionary defines the gaze as:

"To look steadily or intently."¹

In relation to our question, "looking intently" could be seen as the way in which women are viewed throughout the different art forms such as paintings, photography, and film (though it should be noted that these are not the only forms the gaze has been studied in). Jonathan Schroeder (1998) stated:

"To gaze implies more than to look at - it signifies a psychological relationship of power in which the gazer is superior to the object of the gaze".²

This suggests there is an element of patriarchal dominance in the argument regarding the gaze. From these definitions we can highlight the arguments regarding the gaze. The term "male gaze" was termed by writer Laura Mulvey³. This school of feminist thought during the late 70's and early 80's looked closely at the portrayal of women and the argument that the gaze was, in fact, from a male's point of view. A key feature in this theory is that the object of the gaze is not aware of the current viewer (though they may have been aware whilst being filmed, photographed etc). Viewing the images in a recorded form lends the viewer a voyeuristic dimension. There are many forms of the gaze though it is primarily concerned with who is 'doing the looking'. The following forms are most commonly associated with the gaze theory. First, the Spectators Gaze is the gaze of the viewer at an image of a person (or indeed objects). The next form of the gaze is the Intra-diegetic gaze. This is the gaze from one person to another within the particular art form, often referred to as the 'point of view' shot. The Direct or (extra-diegetic) address to the viewer refers to a person within the art-form who is looking out of the frame at the viewer themselves. Finally, the Look of the Camera gaze is the way the camera views people within the scene; this is often discussed as the gaze of the film maker or photographer.

The aspect of voyeurism has been closely studied in relation to the Gaze argument. Voyeurism can be seen as one person taking pleasure at looking at others and is usually discussed in two forms; firstly, the sadistic look refers to the distance between the spectator and the image allowing power over the image, whilst fetishism is classically understood as one solution to castration anxiety. Both fetishism and voyeurism are sexual male perversions apparently representing solutions to unconscious conflicts. Early theory referred to the psychosexual development theories by the likes of Freud. They believed some forms of fetishism could be related to castration anxiety. This theory derived from psycho-sexual analysis ties in with voyeurism and scocophilia - the pleasure involved in looking at other people's bodies as erotic objects. Laura Mulvey believed viewing films was a form of voyeuristic pleasure facilitated by both voyeuristic processes of objectification with one 'ideal ego' on screen. Subsequently, the conditions in which films are viewed in cinemas facilitate this notion. It was suggested that as the cinema would be darkened and the viewers could watch the film without interruption or the chance to see another person there, it provides a truly voyeuristic angle. Mulvey also suggested that even in the production of the film, as man is in control of the camera, he is in control of the voyeuristic gaze of the camera. It was also suggested that within the realm of cinema, women's images where viewed as objects of male desire that could either be idolised or destroyed. It's also believed that the controlling gaze links to the fetish of sadism.

An excellent example in relevance to 'the gaze' would be a recent photography exhibition held in the Eyestorm Gallery, London. Using the 'look of the camera' gaze, photographer Bob Carlos exhibited a range of photos entitled Love Dolls Never Die⁴, which saw women photographed in fetish wear and shot provocatively in black and white, and colour. The collection showed photographs of models and actresses dressed in rubber and latex and caused a great deal of discussion on its opening (see appendix 1). The fetishised women where to be studied as objects, though the photographer had emphasised the exhibition as ironic and post-modern. However the 'Lads Mags' where quick to view the pictures not as art, but as highly sexual material. It is clear to some that this set of photographs was indeed shot for the benefit of men and not as a benefit to art, however, the photographer was quick to emphasise this was not his intention.

Another relevant example would be that of an advert by men's watch maker Breil which utilises a 'direct address' gaze (see appendix 2). The full page advert in January's GQ magazine showed a woman clutching her wrist though it is clear the focus is not on the watch. Accompanied by the slogan "Don't touch my Breil", the brunette model can be seen staring directly at the camera clutching her wrist, thus exhibiting the watch, however, the image of the watch itself barely takes up 5% of the advert. It could be viewed that men will be inclined to buy the watch as attractive women are likely to want the watch and thus perhaps, the wearer.

In 1997, Eidos⁵ programmers released the game Tomb Raider, a computer game clearly aimed at a male market. The main character in the game, Lara Croft, was a brunette woman with a fantasy figure. Wearing shorts and a figure hugging t-shirt, guns on both legs and enormous breasts, it was only a matter of time before her image became a fetishised and revered figure. It could be seen that this harks back to the point previously made regarding women being either idolised or destroyed. The game became so popular that a film was eventually commissioned starring Angelina Jolie. Again the male gaze was practised not only in the filming but in the adverts and posters for the film (see appendix 3). It is clear in the picture that there is very little information regarding what takes place in the film other than the large breasted heroin and it achieves this by applying a 'spectators gaze'. Understandably, this film can be viewed as a prime example of the existence of the male gaze.

Another example from January's GQ magazine was their underwear section (see appendix 4). It could be viewed here that there appears to be no other reason for the section than simply to see a model in underwear. Had it been Februaries issue, it could be seen that it was to give the reader ideas for Valentines Gifts. The section contains around 50 photographs drawing on the 'spectators gaze' approach to photography which sees the model in various underwear and in some cases, no underwear at all. To add to this, the details regarding the underwear at the foot of the first page is in such a small font, even those with perfect vision would have to concentrate to read it, though one suspects the magazine and its average reader are hardly concerned with where to buy the underwear. Rather, the photographs are shot with a Polaroid camera in a dimly lit room as if to suggest it was an intimate setting between two adults. This could be linked to the idea of voyeurism in that the way they are shot suggests these where private photographs.

It could be argued that these examples are clearly indicative of the gaze being geared towards the male, however, it should be pointed out that two of the examples where from a men's magazine.

In 1997, industrial dance band the prodigy, released a single entitled "Smack my bitch up". The song was a fast paced dance number with one of the band members shouting the title during the chorus. The accompanying video shocked and confused many. The video is shot from the cameras point of view (or the intra-diegetic gaze) and shows the individual preparing for an evening out. During the video the individual drinks, takes drugs, goes to a strip bar, meets a stripper, steals a car then goes home and sleeps with the stripper. The video caused a huge amount of controversy but the biggest shock was to be held until the end of the video. From the behaviour of the individual during the video, it is assumed it is a man, however, the last shot of the video is the individual looking at them selves in the mirror, it is in this shot the viewer realises the individual is a young woman. This video is an interesting example in the gaze debate. For some the video appears to be shot for men because of the behaviour and the obviously (or so they thought) heterosexual encounters with women. However, some viewed it as a new twist on a much recognised and tired 'lad' image. The spectacle of a women taking control and over consuming is something not seen in video too regularly and is now recognised as one of the smartest videos accompanying a song.

An interesting point can be raised in Natacha Merritt's Digital Diaries⁶(see appendix 5). Digital Diaries is an autobiographical collection of photographs taking by Merritt over the period of six years. Released in 2000, it chronicles the photographer's sexual awakening and exploits, presenting her in various states of undress and congress. Her photographs employ the 'look of the camera gaze' view. The author questioned whether her photographs where pornographic and instead argued that they where in fact, simply a photo diary documenting her female sexuality. Understandably, the release of this book caused a great stir on its release, however it poses an important question: Was this book made with the male gaze in mind? Subsequently, did the author take the photographs of herself with the male gaze? Either way, the book proved to be hugely popular and it can only be assumed that a great deal of the buyers where male. Indeed, when Mulvey released her original paper, there where discussions regarding why there was no account for the female spectator

A possible example of the female gaze could be that of Brad Pitt's character in 'Thelma and Louise'⁷. It could be thought that the depiction of his character was shot solely from the female gaze. Using an 'intra-diegetic' gaze, the camera views him is intended to exude sex appeal and some might argue it is unlikely that a straight man is the intended viewer and thus, the gaze must be female.

Mulvey's paper generated a great deal of controversy and was quickly under attack from film theorists and other writers. Concerns where raised regarding the fixity of the passive woman and the active male within the theory. As was previously mentioned, another argument raised the point that Mulvey's paper did not appear to account for the female spectator. Some theorists believed Mulvey's theory was too essentialist in that it only accounted for one type of spectator, that of the male and one type of masculinity, heterosexual. However, Kaplan and Kaja Silverman (1980) suggested that the gaze could be adopted by both the male and the female. By 'reading against the grain' they believed we should accept that the male is not always the controlling subject nor is the female always the passive object. Neale and Dyer⁸ (1982) also challenged this theory by suggesting the male is not always the looker in control of the gaze, in fact, in the 20 years since the original theory, it is worth noting that there has been a noticeable increase in the sexualisation of the male body in the cinemas, television and advertising.

One such example would be that used by Yves Saint Laraunt for their M7 aftershave campaign. The image (see appendix 6) is in black and white and shows an entirely nude man looking away from the camera, this could be seen as exercising 'the look of the camera'. It could be argued that this image is for the female gaze or alternatively, the Gay Gaze. Reena Mistry's paper From 'Heart and Home' to a Queer Chic, (2000)⁹ challenges Mulvey's theory and discusses the ambivalence of sexual orientation. Citing Jean Paul Gaultier's adverts for his 'Le Male' aftershave, she discusses how adverts have changed. The photographer employs a 'direct gaze' whilst taking the advertisement photographs. By using images classically associated with homosexuality - the sailor for example - (see appendix 7) he challenges normal advertising by employing male homosexuality as opposed to heterosexuality. This employment of the Gay Gaze clashes with Mulvey's theory as she had stipulated men identify with men and desire women, however in the series of adverts there is images of men being attracted to men as opposed to the usual women desiring the man because of his aftershave.

It could be viewed that from early examples, the gaze was indeed male. Film noir and its femme fatales had depicted women in both a heroic and submissive form idolised by men, shot by men and for men's enjoyment. Advertisements throughout history also appeared to have been shot with the male gaze however, it is clear as time has progressed, it is no longer so simple to conclude that the gaze is male. As previously mentioned, aftershave adverts have depicted homosexual men so the theory that the male gaze is entirely heterosexual is easily questionable. Subsequently, female artist like Natacha Merritt have inadvertently challenged the theory also. Although the scenes in her pictures where heterosexual, they where shot with a female's gaze and often had no men in the photos at all. As for cinema, films like the aforementioned 'Thelma and Louise' have exemplified the female gaze though it is clear there is still a dominant male gaze in cinema. In conclusion, this writer believes that the gaze can be male though it can also be the gay gaze and the female gaze. Perhaps the question shouldn't be: Is the gaze male? Perhaps instead the question should be: Whose gaze is it?

1
Collins Dictionary, 1999.

2
Schroeder, J.E. Consuming Representation: A
Visual Approach to Consumer Research. Representing Consumers:
Voices Views and Vision. Routledge Publishers. (1998)
pp.193-230

3
Mulvey, L. Visual Pleasure and Narrative
Cinema. Part of Visual and Other Pleasures. Indiana
University Press. USA. (1980)

4
Carlos, R. Love Dolls Never Die.
Eyestorm Gallery, London. 2004. www.eyestorm.com.

5
www.eidosinteractive.com.

6
Merritt, N. Digital Diaries. Taschen
Publishers. 2000.

7Thelma and Louise. Writer Callie Khouri. Paramount Pictures
1991.

8
Dyer, R. Don't Look Now: The Male Pin-up.
Caughie et al. The Sexual Subject, Reader in Sexuality. London,
1992.

9
Mistry, R. From 'Hearth and Home' to a
Queer Chic. Institute of Communication Studies, University of
Leeds. 2000. www.theory.org.uk/mistry.htm