Child Development

Infancy is the first stage of life. This stage lasts from birth to approximately 18 months of age. This is a critical time and is characterized by the physical and emotional development of the infant. Throughout infancy, the average child increases in both height and weight. At this time, the child begins walking, teething, exhibiting speech skills and developing sensory discrimination. It is during this period that the infant will for basic attachments. The environment that the infant is exposed to will have a profound impact on the future development of the child.

During the first three months of life, sensory acuity develops at a rapid rate. Research has shown that newborns are capable of optical and aural discrimination. Just days after birth, the baby is able to differentiate tastes and scents. Infants are also responsive to sound and volume. During this time, the infant is able to distinguish colors and forms. They generally express inclinations towards new, unusual and complex stimuli as opposed to simple and recurring stimuli.

Many of the motor movements performed by newborns are reflexive. Soon after birth, the newborn acquires voluntary control of its motor functions. There are three major stages of movement in infants. The first is crawling, using only the arms. The second is propulsion while on the hands and knees. The third and final stage is walking. On an average, a majority of infants are able to walk between 13 and 15 months of age. Some may walk sooner or later; all babies are different and progress at different rates.

Average infants have neurological systems that are capable of distinguishing/storing speech sounds, allowing sound imitation and eventually producing language. Infants are able to articulate all known speech sounds, but retain only those that are heard repeatedly. At approximately one-year of age, infants are able to produce word-like sounds. By 18 months of age, the infant is able to connect these words with their meanings. Acquisition of more complex language is very rapid after the first 18 months.

Development during infancy is not only physical, but also emotional. During this time, a psychological bond is formed between the infant and his/her primary caregiver (usually the mother). This is known as attachment. Attachment behaviors are behaviors that bring the infant into contact with the caregiver(s). Crying and smiling are two examples of this type of behavior. Mature relationships develop from the secure emotional base formed by attachment. Research has proven that inadequate attachment hinders the social and emotional development of the infant. For example, if a child experiences maternal deprivation, thus not being able to form a secure attachment, later attachment is often extremely difficult or abnormal. The occurrence of traumatic events during infancy (such as malnutrition or physical abuse) will have a negative impact on the development and behavior of the individual. Less severe experiences also have an influence, however their effects may be temporary and less obvious. All early experiences have been found to influence the child's attitude towards the learning process, self-concept and the ability to develop and maintain subsequent social/emotional relationships.

Language acquisition is another important part of a child's development. In most infants, the first words are spoken at approximately one-year of age. By the time the child is two-years-old, his/her vocabulary will typically consist of approximately 270 words. By the time most children are six-years-old, they speak about 2,600 words. Most children are able to use correct sentences by three years of age. By five, the child is able to construct more highly complex sentences. Noam Chomsky, an American linguist, writer, teacher and political activist postulated that the human brain is specifically structured to recognize and reproduce language. He maintained that formal learning is not required by the mental system, and that the system will function perfectly as long as the child is constantly exposed to language. Most psycholinguists do not adhere to all of Chomsky's views, however many do accept his concept of special mental language systems. Modern theorists are concerned with the connection between cognitive development and language. It has bee assumed that a child's language is a reflection of his/her concepts and that a child's language will develop as his/her concepts expand.

Personality development is a significant aspect of child development. Personality formation is considered to be the process by which a child learns how to avoid conflict when possible and how to manage conflict when it is inevitable. Parents that are hyper-restrictive or hyper-permissive unknowingly inhibit their child's alternatives in evading and coping with conflict. A conventional response to an overpowering conflict is to revert to a defense mechanism, such as rationalization. Rationalization is the process by which a person denies his/her genuine feelings or motivations by justifying or reasonably explaining unacceptable behavior. Everyone uses defense mechanisms at one time or another, however they should not be exclusively used to manage conflict. A child that has a balanced personality will feel that he/she is loved and accepted and has been taught a variety of appropriate coping mechanisms.

Intelligence and learning ability are pertinent to a child's development. Intelligence is defined as the ability to learn and retain information. The two most popular child intelligence tests are the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. The tests are used to indicate the child's mental growth and forecast the child's learning performances. Since school learning is highly dependent on the ability to reason verbally, the content of the intelligence tests are very important. There is a nexus between the intelligence-test performance and achievement in school. The predictions based on the tests are not fully accurate and cannot measure motivation. Intelligence tests are sometimes inapt when given to children with linguistic/cultural barriers. For this reason, test scores should be carefully assessed.

A child's family relationships have a profound impact on the developmental growth of the child. The views, values and behaviors of the parents influence the child's development. Children have a tendency to imitate the behavior that they are exposed to. Parents/Guardians are the most influential people in a child's life. Children's traits can also impact the behavior of the parents. For example, a disabled or sick child may require more care and attention, causing more parental anxiety than a healthy child would. Behavior of parents towards their children varies greatly. Some are very restrictive, others very permissive. Some integrate a certain amount of permissiveness with restrictiveness. Some parents are heavily involved in their children's lives, while others are more detached. All parents are different, but have one very important commonality: the profound impact that they will have on their child's development. Some parents have a positive impact on their children, but unfortunately, many do not. Parents' attitudes towards their children can shape the child's personality. A child that is treated with permissiveness and hostility will tend to become highly aggressive and non-compliant. Well-behaved, dependent and polite children have been attributed to warm and restrictive parents. Children learn by example and mimic what they see. Using physical punishment to discipline a child may result in a physically aggressive child.

Along with family and parental relationships, social relationships also affect a child's development. Infants engage in parallel play, which is non-interactive. This involves two or more children, usually close in proximity and having similar interests that do not interact on a social level. Beginning in pre-school, the child's relationships become increasingly more sophisticated. Sophistication of the relationship and potential impact on the child have a direct relationship. A child's friendships (especially the more intricate ones) have a major impact on the behavior of the values of the child. The conversion into the adult social world is assisted by a group of peers possessing varying strengths and vulnerabilities. The difference in character traits helps the child realize the need for cooperative behavior. By the onset of adolescence (approximately twelve years of age), peer-group conformity reaches a pinnacle. Peer conformity exists throughout a person's life, but its manifestations are less apparent in adulthood. Age has a direct impact on peer-group members. Prior to adolescence, peer members are usually of the same gender and come from the same neighborhood. Subsequent relationships are based upon similarities in interests and values.

Socialization is the process by which children learn to distinguish the difference between appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Children are expected to learn that behaviors such as stealing, physical aggression and cheating are undesirable and wrong. They are also expected to learn that behaviors such as honesty, cooperation and sharing are good. Many theories have implied that this process can be achieved by a system of rewards and punishment. This type of learning is known as operant conditioning. Under this form of conditioning, learning is achieved through positive and negative reinforcement. Children will tend to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and avoid behaviors that yield punishment. More modern theories emphasize the importance of cognition (thinking, perceiving and knowing). In order to socialize maturely, one must comprehend and abide by the social rules of behavior that are applicable under all circumstances. Understanding concepts of morality is a significant part of socialization. Lawrence Kohlberghas, an American psychologist, proposed that moral thinking exists on three levels. The first level is acceptance to a rule to circumvent punishment. This demonstrates the thought process of young children. The highest level of moral thinking is typified by a just comprehension of moral principles necessary for the survival of society. It has been found that comprehension of such principles is inconsistent with behavior.

Child development is a very complex process that every child undergoes. This process I influenced by many factors. Some of these factors are biological (e.g. the genetic make-up of the child). Some of these factors are environmental (e.g. the people that the child is exposed to and their personalities). All of the aforementioned factors have an intense impact on the emotional, psychological, physical and social development of the child.