Chinese Immigration to the United States: A Battle to Make a Living

As the Qing Dynasty started its downfall in the late 19th century, many Chinese people sought a new life in a new land, a place known as "Beautiful Country". The homeland was ravaged by political unrest, most significantly by the Taiping Rebellion that claimed about 20 million lives during its fourteen year span between 1850 to 1864. The Manchu rulers were abetted by British and French troops looking to preserve the status quo, which involved the acquisition of land and free trade agreements. On the opposing side were Hakka and Chinese peasants who sought to create a pseudo-Christian society under the leadership of Hong Xiuquan.

The first to emigrate were strong men who were eager to work. Many of them had families in the mainland to support. Commercial fishing was lucrative, and they dominated this business with the plentiful catches of shrimp, sturgeon, and abalone. Their junks could carry up to 15 tons, more than double of what the Euro-American fishing vessels could carry. In 1888, there were over 2,000 Chinese fishermen along the California coast. However, the Scott Act (1888) and Geary Act (1892) did much damage to this business because it limited the fishermen's access to Mexican waters. Chinese fishermen who ventured to the Mexican coast were not allowed to return even if they provided residence papers. Even if they were able to clear the customs houses, Mexico mandated an annual licensing fee of $60. Chinese workers who chose to make a living on land fared no better. They were barraged by a slew of anti-Chinese legislation that taxed specifically "Mongolian" miners. Sickly Chinese were refused admittance to hospitals, yet herbal doctors were arrested hundreds of times for not having a license to practice medicine. An estimated 15,000 Chinese men were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad Company to build the transcontinental railroad. The peril of this type of work is illustrated by one article featured in the Sacramento reporter: "The accumulated bones of perhaps 1,200 Chinamen came in by the eastern train yesterday from along the line of the Central Pacific Railroad… Nearly all of them are the remains of employees of the company."

Along with the Chinese came their traditional style of dress: tapered pants and a tunic typically made of silk or cotton. Their hair was long and pulled back in a braid. Chinese food was no less distinct, as they preferred tea over water, ate dried oysters and cuttlefish instead of beef and beans. They were easily ridiculed, and rumors abounded about rat-eating Chinamen who were addicted to opium. Typical headlines of the day fanned the flames of fear of the feral Chinamen: "Chinese Demons. Their Terrible Practices in Milwaukee" (Milwaukee Sentinel), "The Heathen Chinee" (Harper's Weekly), "China's Menace to the World" (The Forum), and "John Chinaman. The Pest of the Pacific Coast" (News). With the exception of Oregon, the Chinese were segregated to ghettos where as many as thirty men would live in one room. However, it was this segregation that led to the development of an intricate network that served to draw even more Chinese immigrants as establishments within the Chinatowns closely resembled those in the homeland.

Haiming Liu's article explains how the Cantonese kinship system played a major role in immigration: "Pioneer merchant immigrants passed on information about the new country to their kin, encouraged them to emigrate, and even paid the transportation costs for clansmen who could not afford it." Clan associations provided support for immigrants through loans and job placement. These associations sponsored New Year's festivities and the construction of temples. Membership was determined by like surnames. Merchant associations soon formed to promote community welfare. It was from these humble beginnings that Chinese people established political clout. Examples of these include the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association, Los Angeles Chinatown Project Association, Chinese Merchants Association, and Chinese Empire Reform Association. During the 1970's, changing times called for a wider array of associations that served various needs, e.g., Chinese Progressive Association, Asian Law Caucus and the China Rainbow association, a social network of gay Chinese.
In every sector including their own Chinatowns, the Chinese found themselves battling to keep their footing on the American frontier. Twice, the San Jose Chinatown was reduced to ashes under suspicious circumstances. The San Diego Chinatown was evacuated when the California Supreme Court decided to plow a train station right through it. The resilience and tenacity of the Chinese immigrants is truly inspirational. The second generation follows the legacy of an impervious work ethic and duty to family that fosters an appreciation of roots and a fuller sense of identity.