Cinematic Interpretations of World Dance

Although modern American cinema may not openly promote dance, it has been a subject and vital source of inspiration for film since the development of the moving picture camera by Thomas Edison in 1897. In fact, among Edison's first subjects were; a woman doing a serpentine dance, a group of Fiji Islanders and an early ballet dancer. The power and accessibility of film has empowered and broadened the horizons of dance. However, through its directed perception, film has also created misinterpretations and misunderstandings regarding a dance's culture of origin, its meaning and its usage. The scope of this paper will include the following parameters; the history of dance on film, musicals, and non-musical theatrical films which incorporate dance. Within each of these parameters the technical, aesthetic and historically accurate points will be discussed. Now sit back, relax and let the movies take over.

Although Thomas Edison create the motion picture camera at the end of the nineteenth century and immediately began using dance as a subject to photography, it wasn't until nearly two decades later that dance was brought to the attention of the general public through cinema. In 1921, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse with Rudolph Valentino was released (www.filmsite.org/musical films.html). In one scene in a smoky cantina Valentino does the tango dressed in an Argentine gauncho costume. The sensuality of the dance as well as the steps are well captured on film. The choreography remains true to its original technique and historically fits within the setting. The camera remains fairly stationary, which is common among early films due to the physical limitations of the primary equipment, yet the relationship of the tango was not lost in translation, it was emphasized with the ability of film to focus ones attention. Before The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse glimpses of dance were screened at nickelodeons.

These included but were not limited to; women on pointe, belly dancers, skirt dancers, cakewalk and buck-and-wing performers (McCormick, 708). American filmmaker D.W. Griffith saw the interest in dance as a subject for the camera when he began incorporating dance and pantomime sequences into his films in 1908 even if that meant there was simply a performance occurring in the background or social dance in the foreground (McCormick, 710-11). However the public did not at the time particularly enjoy his artistry so much as the fact that film was still relatively new and something new is always exciting.

With the invention of synchronized sound, musical began to be made. At first these films were shot by a stationary camera which could not be moved because the camera had an operating noise which was far too loud and would have easily been picked up by the sound operators miking the scene. As "talkie" films became more popular and technology advanced the production of what people today think of as "an old musical" commenced. Most directors found their talent and stories on Broadway so that the product was nothing more than a filmed version of a stage show. When New York showman Busby Berkeley entered the cinematic world he took the crows by storm. He realized that the placement and movement of the camera contributed to the choreography on screen. Berkeley has monorails and boom cranes built to capture the sweeping aerial shots and low level invasions used to create the illusion of accentuated lines and curves, a concept which was unheard of at the time (Kenrick). Roger Copeland said "the most unexotic object can command as much attention as the most glamorous performer...Movies are the great equalizer of things" (McCormick, 714). It was at this point that choreographers began realizing the camera is capable of seeing more than the human eye because it sees things unselectively. So to focus the audience's attention one must wither choreography specifically for the camera with every frame in mind or move the camera around and pre-plan extensive editing, the latter of which would not be used until much later in the century. The former is one of the distinctive characteristics of the greatest dance duo of all time, Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers.

Astaire and Rogers entered the world of musicals together in the gilm Flying Down To Rio (1933) (Kenrick). Their chemistry was instantly apparent and so one film led to another and another with Fred choreographing nearly every step. With complete control of the cinematographer, Astaire changed the way musicals were filmed. He insisted that the dance numbers be filmed in long takes with minimal change from the camera operator besides keeping the entire dancing body in frame (www.filmsite.org/musical films.html). The "Astaire dolly," a piece of equipment with wheels on it on which the camera rests, was designed to allow technicians to be able to maintain the proper full body framing from a low angle with little movement (www.filmsite.org/musical films.html). Fred insisted that dance "flow naturally in and out of the story line," heightening situations with the absence of dialogue (McCormick, 719).

Famous ballet choreographer George Balanchine blocked several films in the late thirties credited as both the director and choreographer of the dance sequences because he has absolute control of the shooting script (McCormick, 726). However, Balanchine is not well remembered for his film choreography. The next great film choreographer was a man who would forever change the way dance films were both created and enjoyed. Gene Kelly, the man next door anyone could identify with, "[used] the camera for film to do what couldn't be attempted on stage" (McCormick, 727). On one film, he uses a double exposure to make it appear as though he were dancing with himself. His approach to the genre was more of a fusion of film and dance as opposed to Astaire's somewhat documentary style performance.

From this point on dance films were permanently altered. The great films which followed Kelly's classics each had their own identifying traits which marked the era in which they were made. Jerome Robbins' West Side Story, the seventies' Saturday Night Fever, Rocky Horror Picture Show and Grease expanded the medium. Lars von Trier, Rob Marshall, Baz Luhrmann, Bob Fosse and MTV would change the medium so dramatically in the eighties and on, that today some critics challenge whether the films were really danced well or simply masterfully edited. Either way dance remains alive on film today, so let us study a few musicals to examine the use of dance within the film.

Bizet's Carmen is an operatic adaptation of the long running stage ballet. Set in Spain, the lyrics are French and the culture is reflected in three dance routines. In the first routine, a folk type number, women move in a circle. Arm movements are emphasized with aerial and over the shoulder shots. The great articulation of the fingers and awareness of the upper body is genuinely accurate of this particular style. Little attention is paid to the feet however, so whether the footwork is correct is difficult to decipher. Continuing in this routine, the men form two lines clapping with their arms help perpendicular at ninety degree angles, chests pulled up and chins lifted. The women and men select partners then dance in typical social fashion moving around quickly. The shot selection varies, from long shots of the group to over the shoulder of a couple to medium shots of three couples exchanging positions. The medium paces editing attempts to continue the movement but several beats are lost when individuals are singled out or the depth of perspective changes so that the ground and/or sky are not visible to judge it against. In the following dance sequence French socialites watch a couple perform a French court routine dressed in full black and red Spanish attire, fan and all. The dancing is shot entirely in long shots and there is very little editing. The technique of the routine is flawlessly preserved from its original origins however this section seems to serve little purpose. It does not further the narrative, nor does it allow the audience another point or view or emotional release. No, it is a performance within a film and that is all. Finally, at a gypsy gathering later on, Carmen performs a combined salsa/flamenco routine on top of a bar. The editing moves with her, every turn is justifies a cut, every swish of her skirt another angle. Here the dancing is not the emphasis, instead it is Carmen and her development. The edginess and sexuality she exhibits are character releases, she grows and empowers herself through the expressive means of movement. Although not technically masterful, this piece is powerful enough in its symbolism to stand.

An American in Paris features on of the longest ballet routines ever recorded for a theatrical film. Running seventeen minutes long this beautiful ballet tells the entire story of the film through dance. Absent of most cinematic tricks, the actual athletic abilities of the performers is visible, they are incredible dancers. The ballet technique is fabulous. The lightness, seemingly ease of motion and magical elements of "high art" are all captures which further helps end this fairytale journey. From a technical cinematic point of view, more shot variance would have engaged onlookers more and created a more lasting impression because with the wait it was shot and edited, while it does engage the audience in the story at hand, it doesn't solidify the emotional aspects for ballet is detachable due to its "high society" status.

Chitty Chitty Bang Bang was one of the few films successful in its sole use of long shot footage in a sequence. In a mixture of jazz and Capoeria several men entertain onlookers at the local fair in hopes that they will throw them coins. Acrobatic in nature this athletic joust of sorts is entertaining because of its unique choreography. Like the French court dance in Carmen this routine is mostly showy. Even though hints of a story are expressed through dance they could have easily been expressed through words as well. Unlike Chitty Chitty Bang Ban's long form cinematography, Moulin Rouge was choreographed and shot with one thing in mind, what director Baz Luhrmann wanted the audience to see and absolutely nothing else.

Love it or hate it, Moulin Rouge is the best example of using the medium of film to show what cannot be expressed on stage. Sitting in the audience at a stage show can one give and receive movement as the can with the use of alternating perspective in film which creates an all-encompassing emotional connection to the characters? No. At a stage show the audience remains the audience, spectators to the story. With film the audience is invited to be participants, to enter the lavish world of, in this case, the Moulin Rouge. Series of extreme close-ups are successful in drawing attention to detail and establishing the setting with dialogue. The performers dance for the camera so that the spectator receives the feeling that this is all being done for them. It becomes a very personal experience which engulfs the active participant. Much of the film is choreographed in a very showy, burlesque fashion. The dancing is high energy, athletic and dramatic. The shots vary more than one could ever analyze and the editing quickens the already fast moving pace. However because of the editing it is difficult to tell if there are even any actual dance routines per say. Yes, there are routines, but unlike those in other musicals. There are short, choppy tidbits of what one can assume was once choreographed as a full piece. This brings up a point director Martin Scorcese has talked about on occasion. In music videos and modern films, he says "the camera itself is dancing..it speaks another language to a younger generation" (Lihs, 73). This it is possible to say that technological advances have deemphasized the need for and use of well trained dancers and interesting choreography. Whether this is true or not it is debatable. What is not debatable though, is the "Roxanne" tango routine in the film. This sequence is a work of genuis. Mutliple storylines are edited together and united by the theme of trying to escape prostitution (in several senses of the word) and continually falling back into the same cycle. The tango is shown in close-ups, medium shots, long shots, aerial perspectives and with other creative devices such as through reaction shots and reflective glances. With the editing the pace is slowed and quickened independent of the music. The passion, excitement, lust, agony and desire portrayed through the lens are incredible. It is one of the only dance numbers on film which have the audience on the edge of their seat waiting to see what will happen next, wanting to jump into the action. The footwork appears to be correct in form yet with the frequency of movement and rapid edits that may not be entirely true. Aesthetically, any errors in footwork are made up for in the emotional intensity the tango delivers. This same intensity is powerful in its own way in its modern day counterpart Chicago.

While the story in "Cell Block Tango" is somewhat similar (trying to break free from something and seek revenge), the style is obviously different. Unlike the frequent swish pans and edits to shift focus used in Moulin Rouge, Rob Marshall choreographed "Cell Block Tango" in such a way that required only straight cuts to offer different angles. Mostly medium and long shots are used, however each character does have their close-up moments when they are retelling their murderous "not guilty" story. The tango in this film is more of a fusion of jazz and tango whereas in Moulin Rouge the tango existed more in its original form. The difference in tango between the films is how they were used to further the narrative. In Moulin Rouge the tango was purely an emotional set-up. It pushed the audience to a point where they felt it was impossible to turn back and a decision had to be made immediately. It served as a major turning point. With Chicago the tango was exposition, background information. It introduced the supporting cast and provided the audience with a reason to defend these women, they had been wronged and it was their only option. So in both films the same dance was used but with different intentions and exhibited with different means.

Non-musical films which incorporate dance are less frequently made and distributed in America, yet in other countries dance is an everyday activity which can be seen in several films. The first of these films, Siddhartha (1972), is about a young Indian man who embarks on a journey to discover the meaning of life. Women in this film perform the bharata naatyam as well as dance at one of their female only and close male relatives gatherings. They form a large circle and soon another smaller circle in the center evolves. Around and around they go moving to the beat of the drummers. A soloist performs on the steps beside the drummers. The dancing is authentic although the cinematographer cuts off feet, focusing on the colors of the wraps as they pass and the joyous faces as they move in and away from the camera in the foreground. The camera angles used exaggerate the dimensions of the performance area and balance the changing circular pattern. In this example, dance is an extension of the character, an everyday activity which shouldn't be left out in following the development of the characters as complete or incomplete individuals.

Robert Flaherty's 1931 silent film Tabu began as a documentary and turned into a fictional tale of a young fisherman who falls in love with a woman who has chosen to be a holy maid on the island of Bora Bora and is therefore taboo. The supporting cast in the film are locals from the island and this their performances are indeed authentic Tahitian dances. The first performance begins with men doing a processional dance arm in arm down a walkway to the beat of the drummer. They separate when they reach the front and reveal a single line of female dancers. The entire section up until this point is filmed in a long shot revealing the entire group and choosing no set point of focus. The camera merely presents things as they are. As a lead male makes an offering of flower adornments an edit directs focus to that of the female up front. She smiles and shakes her hips but after a brief cut to the drummers we no longer see her feet or hips. The focus is on her upper half In an attempt to personalize this foreign dance to the viewer by presenting a human face to connect to the movement. A second dance later in the film directs the viewer's attention to a woman dressed from head to toe in white clothing. Members of the village gather around her and sit in a circle watching her dance. Soon a man jumps to his feet and begins dancing with her avoiding actual contact but attempting to get as close as possible. Now the shots vary. Close-ups of the feet mix with medium shots of the couple and reaction shots form the villagers. Film creates a participation and understand of the dance with the focus being directed to various segments of the body and the expected emotional responses. Flaherty presents a foreign culture as is and then later attempts to create common links to other societies to remove some of the oddity one associates with confusion and lack of knowledge.

Jean Benoit-Levy's La Mort du cygnet released in the US as Ballerina in 1938 was the first dramatic portrayal of the interworkings of a ballet company and the ballet work (McCormick, 738). Although it did not receive great acclaim in the US because it was subtitles (recorded in French), the film was a big step in educating the public about the subject of dance training (McCormick, 738). It also established some commonly seen stereotypes: the harsh Russian ballet mistress, the dream- starry eyed ballerina, the evil ballerina and the crazy premier danseur. These stereotypes are still used today by many when critiquing a ballet subject based film such as The Red Shoes, Save the Last Dance, or Center Stage.

Center Stage (2000) appears to be a film about a group of dancers accepted to the American Ballet Academy trying to get into the American Ballet Company but honestly it is not much more than a tale of misplace affection, finding your way and never giving up. It's a positive themed feature length soap. The ballet technique is performed correctly, in fact at times it's impeccable. The night scene at the salsa club offers glimpses of some passion and chemistry between the partners but even that statement is somewhat reaching. The director and cinematographer should have collaborated more on this film because most of the dance sequences are extremely externalized. In the jazz class sequence, the ending bit where each dancer has a free pass across the floor is completely showy and does nothing for character development, symbolic suggestions or plot fulfillment. It is not until the end of the film in the Cooper Nielsen recital piece that the camera is used to create illusions otherwise impossible and emphasize details. This segment metaphorically depicts the events of the entire film through the story of the ballet. Edits allow for unexplained and impossible costume changes between scenes. The editing also creates a barrier between the Charlie and Cooper characters as they fight for Jodie because they are separated by frames. When they don't appear on screen together they might as well be miles apart because the camera only has a limited depth of field depended upon where one places it. Also the altered point of view shots form behind the dancers looking out to the theater audience give the viewer a brief sense of how it feels to be in their shoes on that stage. It seems as though this is the only connection of the film to the viewer in regards to the aspect of dance. Disappointing, but a valiant effort nonetheless.

Films such as Flashdance and Dirty Dancing used dance as a metaphor for a freer youth culture. "The message in these films seemed to be that if one could abandon oneself to movement and hard-driving rhythms in self-reflective dancing, one could transcend spurious societal values and find a more fundamental moral virtue in one's own sexuality" (McCormick, 743). Dance and film have gone hand in hand since the beginning of motion picture photography. Yet even today, the correct interpretations of dance are often discarded to compensate for a flaw in storytelling or to "make it more interesting". In the age of MTV edgy living and cable television, dance as an art form has been misconstrued and turned into another commercial enterprise which does not know the value of honesty and hard work. But do not despair, there is still goodness out there and people who wish to showcase dance without sacrificing its essence. We're simply wait for the next Gene Kelly.

References

Books:

Lihrs, Harriet R. Appreciating Dance; A Complete Guide to the World's Liveliest Art. A Dance Horizons Book. Princeton Book Company. Hightstown, NJ, 1998.

McCormick, Malcolm; Reynolds, Nancy. No Fixed Points: Dance in the Twentieth Century. Yale University Press. 2003.

Films:

Bizet's Carmen. Dir. Francesco Rosi. Julia Migenes. Gamont. 1984.

An American in Paris. Dir. Vicenti Minnelli. Gene Kelly, Leslie Caron. MGM. 1951.

Center Stage. Dir. Nicholas Hytner. Amanda Schull, Zoe Saldana. Columbia Pictures. 2000.

Chicago. Dir. Rob Marshall. Renee Zellweger, Catherine Zeta-Jones. Miramax Films. 2002.

Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. Dir. Ken Hughes. Dick van Dyke, Sally Ann Howes. United Artists. 1968.

Moulin Rouge. Dir. Baz Luhrmann. Nicole Kidman, Ewan McGregor.

Sidhartha. Dir. Conrad Rooks. Shasi Kapoor. Winkler Film. 1972.

Tabu. Dir. F.W. Murnau. Anne Chevalier, Matahi. Paramount Pictures. 1931.

Internet Sources:

Kenrick, John. "Dance in Screen Musicals." www.musicals101.com/dancescreen.htm, 2004.

www.filmsite.org/musicalfilms.html