Darwin and Christianity

The revolutionary writings of naturalist Charles Darwin, namely the controversial "On the Origin of the Species by the Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life" published in 1859, have haunted the intellect of mankind for over 150 years. Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection have had widespread impact on the basic principles of human existence and sparked ongoing debates regarding God's necessity in a scientifically based account of the creation of life. Creating an impenetrable schism between the foundations of science and religion, Darwin's influential thoughts have been received with mixed emotions; for scientific schools of thought evolution is the answer to the innate question of the source of human life. Yet for advocates of religion, especially those fixed on Genesis' account of God's creation (which according to the Gallup Poll number more than half of the United States population), Darwin's words are a heretically poisoned arrow aimed straight at the heart of Christianity.

While it is unclear whether Darwin knew what the implications of his research would have on future generations of thinkers, it is without doubt that he was uneasy with publishing his revelations. Evolution would prove to be the most debated and controversial scientific topic of recent history. From the famed "Monkey Trial" where John Scopes was found guilty of teaching the subject in 1925, to the "Louisiana Creationism Act" which promoted the teaching of creationism in public schools in 1987, the mixed acceptance regarding the theory has spanned time and is still very much present not only in the religious framework of society but in current government and educational institutions. Nevertheless, for the scientific world, the concept of evolution is an invaluable tool in understanding most of the unanswered questions surrounding human existence.

Evolution's segregation of the religious who deny science and the proponents of science who reject the possibility of God, is an unfortunate and unnecessary outcome, which will result in the ultimate extinction of one school of thought. Rather than perpetuating the more recent concept of science and religion as adversaries, some modern thinkers propose that the two can be rationalized to coexist in harmony, and even depend on each other in symbiosis. Citing the philosophies of Augustine, a great theologian of the 4th century, advocates of this harmonious relationship use his concept of science as a tool for understanding the presence of God, and his skill of biblical interpretation to find a place for evolution. Amidst the controversies surrounding Darwin's theories, it is still possible to approach the revolutionary ideas of his studies without encroaching upon the bible's teachings.

Charles Darwin's birth in 1809 came at a very powerful turning point in scientific thought and the understanding of the world we live in. While not discrediting the invaluable gift Darwin's discoveries have been to the basic foundations of science, the 19th century was a time of strong curiosity for the concept of human existence fueled by a multitude of theologians and scientists. Understanding some of the concepts being debated and the scientific research being conducted in and before Darwin's lifetime will not only shed light on the conception of evolution as a probable theory, but the implications it would inevitably have on religion. The overall association between science and religion is too deep a relationship to trace with any justice to either institution within the framework of this paper, but the chief concepts of the era, including Dualism and Materialism, polygenesis and monogenesis, and the age of mankind, are background enough for an insight into Darwin's world.

Up until the 19th century, with a few exceptions such as the Noachian Flood and the Copernican theory of the Earth's revolution around the Sun, it was not only common but expected that the bible be taken literally. Of chief importance to the foundations of Christianity was the concept of Adam and Eve's creation in the likeness of God, the unity of mankind, and the implications the bible made on the age of the earth (and subsequently mankind). Popular thought among Christians, and the key foundation of the religion, was that God was a creator of infinite wisdom and love who had imparted a piece of himself in order to make mankind in his likeness. According to Genesis, God created man out of dust and breathed his likeness into him. This likeness, which was observed as the "soul", was God's way of differentiating humans from all other living beings. For Christians, the soul was a privileged spiritual force that enabled them to think and feel; it was their connection to God.

For most philosophers and theologians of the time, (as had been a consistent viewpoint as far back as Rene Descartes in the 17th century, who claimed that matter was divisible whereas the mind was not) the separation of mind or "soul" from the body, or Dualism, could be defended by common sense, biblical reference and philosophical grounds. But When Franz Joseph Gall and his student, Johann Spurzheim made a radical appeal to a different perspective known as Phrenology, the belief that the mind was a function of the brain and not separate from the body, advocates of Christianity considered the viewpoint as Materialist, and therefore viewed along the lines of atheism.

About the same time, the concept of ethnology, and the origin of the races, became a fascinating topic of research. The existence of different races in the 19th century as well as 3,000 years prior in Egypt challenged the affirmation of the bible that all man stemmed from Adam and Eve. While the bible also claimed that the creation of mankind dated to about 6,000 years prior, it became evident that these two foundations of human existence could not exist together; either the races had been created separately, the theory of polygenesis, or that the age of mankind was much longer than the bible allotted. Either way, scientific research had unearthed yet another claim that biblical literalism could not support. The popular perspective among Christians and influential thinkers of the time sided with the monogenesis, all human life stemming from Adam, therefore discerning that in fact the age of mankind exceeded 6,000 years, giving enough time for humans to form separate races.

Backed by such thinkers as Charles Lyell, who wrote the "Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man", the concept of various races forming over a long period of time from one initial creation (due to various environmental factors), positively reinforced the legitimacy of variations in plants and animals over time as well. This would ultimately be crudely called the "development hypothesis", and not much later on, the theory of evolution. With these foundations in place for Charles Darwin, when he made his famed voyage on the HMS Beagle, it is of little surprise that he would eventually conceptualize the theories he made. In fact, Darwin was not alone in his theory of evolution, and it was the competition from other scientists that forced him to publish the "Origin of the Species" in 1859, even though his hesitation stemmed from the further implications it would have on religion, and therefore himself. In 1844, Darwin wrote to a friend that to publish his thoughts on evolution would be akin to "confessing of a murder". (Newsweek, 54) While Darwin is associated with the foundation of evolution, his true accomplishment was discerning a probable mechanism for theory, namely natural selection.

Born on February 12th, 1809 in Shrewsbury, England, Charles Darwin came from a lineage deeply engaged in the practice of science. Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin, was a well-accomplished scientist, and his father Robert was a doctor. It was expected of Darwin to follow his father's footsteps in medical practices, but after a short stint at the University of Edinburgh, he found surgery and the patient's suffering too much to handle. Ironically enough, Darwin was to continue his education by entering the ministry. He befriended a biologist by the name of John Stevens Henslow (1796 - 1861), and before he could enter a life dedicated to faith, was offered an opportunity to travel the world on a five-year voyage, as an onboard biologist and naturalist on the HMS Beagle. From 1831 to 1836, Darwin collected data and specimens from South America, Australia and most importantly the Galapagos Islands. In South America, the young Darwin discovered fossils of extinct armadillos (around the size of hippopotamuses) and in the Galapagos Islands, he took notice of small variations between finches and turtles. Along with his research, Darwin left the islands with a bite from a poisonous insect, and a subsequent illness that would plague the rest of his life.

After writing the "Zoology of the Beagle" which was published in 1840, Darwin went on to formulate his concepts of evolution that would revolutionize the world. Having the advantage that geologists had recently dated the Earth as being millions of years old, Darwin's theories had a standing that would have just previously been considered unrealistic. In the "Origin of the Species", published in 1859, he presented his ideas in four comprehensive theories. One, evolution did occur; two, evolution was a process that took millions of years; three, the mechanism for the process of evolution was natural selection; and four, all life arose from one life form, through an intricate process known as "specialization". Darwin's most influential gift to science was his discovery of its mechanism; natural selection is the process of variations within species occurring randomly, and either determining the extinction or survival of that species, by its ability to adapt to its environment. These conclusions in "The Origin of the Species" were prefaced by his opening paragraph:

"When on board H.M.S. Beagle as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the organic beings inhabiting South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts, as will be seen in the latter chapters of this volume, seemed to throw some light on the origin of species- that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to a decision." (Origin of the Species)

While it was apparent that Darwin had spent a good amount of time formulating his conclusions, the widespread popularity of the book was seen as a blow to Christian leaders of the time. "The fall of the design argument had taken out the Creator and with it both Genesis as scriptural evidence and nature as evidence of God." (GN, 363) Perhaps even more disturbing than Darwin's suggestions, was an implication he made in his next publication that would forever change the concept of human existence. In his book "The Descent of Man", 1871, Darwin more clearly states a subject he only hinted at in "The Origin of the Species"; humans, like all other living organisms had also gone through the intricate process of evolution. His theory also more vividly contradicted the popular idea that God had knowingly designed his creations for their environments, by exhibiting the unnecessary tooth-buds of whales, and the human appendix. Further implications by Darwin, though he never outright stated the theory, suggested that animals were the ancestors of humans. He states, "We cannot believe that the same bones in the arm of the monkey, in the fore leg of the horse, in the wing of the bat, and in the flipper of the seal, are of special use to these animals. We may safely attribute these structures to inheritance." (strangescience.net) Darwin left the question of man's direct lineage for future scientists to debate, merely claiming "light will be thrown on the origin of man". (Species, 458)

Thomas Huxley (1825-1895), an ardent proponent of Darwinian theory, famously supported man's direct lineage from the ape during a debate with the Archbishop Samuel Wiberforce in 1860. In his defense of evolution, Huxley stated: "If then, said I, the question is put to me would I rather have a miserable ape for a grandfather or a man highly endowed by nature and possessed of great means of influence and yet who employs these faculties and that influence for the mere purpose of introducing ridicule into a grave scientific discussion, I unhesitatingly affirm my preference for the ape." (Letter to Dyster).
As can be inferred by the previous claims that challenged the bible's literal interpretation, Darwin's theories of evolution and the limitations it implied on God's hand in the creation of life, were ill received by the Christian faith. As evident in the controversy surrounding the issue today, Christians saw it as an attack on the fundamental principles of their religion, and the existence of God. While Darwin made no outright claims on the principles of religion, it is widely believed that because of his research and personal inflictions (namely the death of his daughter Emma at a young age), he was an agnostic.
Charles Darwin's scientific understanding rivals that of other major contributors to intellect, and the echoes of his words can still be heard clearly; an earthquake of grand proportions, his theories caused a great schism between the institutions of science and religion. Today, one hundred and fifty years later, with constant media attention on the debate of evolution versus creationism, 53% of respondents said they believed that God created humans in their present form, while 43% believe that humans evolved from other life forms. (2004 Gallup Poll) For Dr. Francis Collins, Director of the National Human Genome Project, the separation between science and religion those statistics imply is worrisome. A respected scientist, and a devout Christian, Collins asserts that the simple solution to the problem is "theistic evolution", a remerging of the two institutions.

Collins, who earned a PhD in physical chemistry at Yale University, is currently overseeing a fifteen-year project designed to map the human genome. (PBS.org) Mapping this portion of human existence, he has seen first hand that 98.8% of chimpanzee DNA was identical to the human genetic makeup; yet Collins is a practicing Christian, and devout theist. Collins argues that there are five possible ways to approach science - religious controversies. The first option is atheism, which Collins deems unjustified, because God is separate from nature. The second, is agnosticism. Creationism, the third option, is a fairly recent perspective, according to Collins, and used as a response to Darwin less than a hundred years ago. The fourth is "Intelligent Design" and is one of the more recently discussed perspectives, and a very controversial topic.

Intelligent Design is the belief that God lies wherein science cannot be explained; for instance a body part with such intricate structure, such as the eye, cannot be feasibly conceived purely by the methods of evolution. Supporters of Intelligent Design see God's hand at work with such unanswered issues in science. But seeing God's supernatural power in the unknown can be dangerous to the faith. According to Collins during an interview on PBS, "I worry about Intelligent Design, though I admire its advocates for wishing to put forward something in the way of the rebuttal to the idea that evolution says there's no God...I think Intelligent Design sets up a "God of Gaps" kind of scenario. Well, you know, we haven't yet explained this particular feature of evolution, so God must be right there. If science ultimately proves that those gaps aren't gaps, after all, then where is God? We really ought not to ask people to do that." (Tucker Carlson)

Collins proposes his fifth option, "Theistic Evolution", as the most logical perspective to take on issues of science versus religion. This theory suggests that God used evolution as his method of creation. Similar to the techniques of Augustine in the 4th century, this method of interpretation finds room for both science and religion. For example, the story of Adam and Eve's creation could be seen as a method of God installing moral judgment into humans, rather than a literal story of creation. Collins suggests his viewpoint: "I do think that a thinking person can both be one who believes that science, rigorous science, is the way to understand the natural world, and that God is the way to understand the spiritual world. And when you marry the two together, as I do, your appreciation of science, of a new discovery, takes on new meaning because it's a glimpse of what God knew all along and at that moment it's a moment of worship." (Tucker Carlson)

Darwin's controversial ideas may have burned the bridge between science and religion, but Collin's "Theistic Evolution" does a convincing job of instilling hope at least, for a time when science and religion could co-exist peacefully again. Without a reemergence of the schools of thought, it will be inevitable that one will fall; Collins suggested in a speech to the Trinity Church in Virginia, that if Christians do not reunite the two, Christianity will be in jeopardy. It is a crucial time for Christianity, one of acceptance and progression with the times, or that of a lesser existence. By interpreting the Bible loosely, and keeping the messages of the faith intact, one can sacrifice precise details for the overall gain of intellect and spirituality. Darwin, with his profound intellect and reasoning, got all of humanity into this mess, and Collins just may have found the way out.

Bibliography

Adler, Jerry. "Charles Darwin: Evolution of a Scientist", Newsweek. Nov. 28th, 2005

Carlson, Tucker. "Francis Collins Transcript". April 8th, 2005. (http://faculty.fmcc.suny.edu/mcdarby/tucker_carlson_.htm)

Darwin, Charles. "On the Origin of the Species by the Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life" 1859.

Darwin, Charles. "Autobiographies of Charles Darwin and Thomas Huxley". London, 1974.

Dupree, A. Hunter. "Christianity and the Scientific Community in the Age of Darwin". God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science. 1986. New York, 1988.

Freeman, Louise Margaret. "Report: Francis Collins Presentation". Oct, 2005. (www.calvin.edu/archive/asa/200510/0358.html)

Huxley, Thomas. "Letter to Frederick Dyster". September 9th 1860.
(http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/letters/60.html#9sep1860)

PBS Online, "Dr. Francis Collins: Bio". (www.pbs.org/faithandreason/bio/coll - body.html)

Scott, Michon. "Charles Darwin", (http://www.strangescience.net/darwin.htm)

Vorzimmer, Peter J. "Charles Darwin: the years of controversy; The origin of species and its critics, 1859-1882". Philadelphia, 1970.