Debussy's Defiance of Classification

Throughout the nineteenth century, the German serious aesthetic held the prominent position in the musical world. As the century progressed, Nationalism became another important element of music, but it was still difficult for Nationalism and serious music to be one in the same. Claude Debussy was a pioneer in musical exploration. Although Debussy composed what is considered to be "French Nationalist music," his pieces also comply in many ways with the German "serious" aesthetic, which is a paradox because the Germans did not believe that any French music could be "serious." In effect, he manages to be both French and "serious," which was hard to do even when France joined Italy and Germany as a musical center, because ideas of nationality were still and important concept in those three countries.

One way that Debussy was able to form a new type of music is that he drew his influences from a large range of styles. Unlike most serious composers, who only drew from the serious masters like Beethoven and Liszt, Debussy was greatly influenced by both serious Wagnerian ideas, and by Impressionism and non-Western styles. Throughout his life there was a debate concerning the influence of the German upon the French. As Leon Botstein states in his article[1], "From the publication that spring of Charles Baudelaire's two-part essay 'Richard Wagner and Tannhäuser in Paris' to the death of Claude Debussy in 1918, the debate over whether one ought to succumb to or resist Wagner's ideas defined the character of French music and aesthetics." Wagner became an important figure in France, not merely influencing the music. The idea of identity was so important in the late nineteenth century, that, according to Botstein, "Too often, we are content to speak of music in reductive nationalist terms, but the idea of a "French" or "German" style seems practical when talking about nineteenth-century music, because identity was a primary concern of the composers themselves." The diversity of Debussy's influences left him open for criticism from both sides, but he transcended that possibility and became a celebrated figure to a variety of people.

Debussy was influenced by German music, and although it is an altered form, La Mer (1905) resembles a symphony - the ultimate "serious" German form - in that, in its final movement, there is a recurrence of the previous movements' themes.[2] On one occasion[3], he visited Johannes Brahms in Vienna, and there was exposed to a vast quantity of German music and ideals. He was also greatly influenced by Richard Wagner, the successor of the serious composers. According to Botstein[4], Debussy was at the center of a school of composers who were "equally indebted to Wagner." Steven Huebner[5] describes some of the similarities between Debussy's Le Roi Arthus and Wagner's Tristan and Isolde:

Like the end of Debussy's fourth act, the love scene for Genièvre and Lancelot in Chausson's first act looks back to the great second act duet for Tristan and Isolde. Lyonnel stands watch, Brangäne-like, as the lovers dip into Tristanesque harmonies in A-flat major, the key at the center of Wagner's scene.

According to Finson[6], Debussy was also influenced by Liszt, which makes sense, since Liszt and Wagner were closely connected. Some of the ideas that Debussy included in his compositions are directly related to Liszt's concepts about music. Both Liszt and Debussy attempted to connect music to poetry. For example, Debussy's Prélude à L'après-midi d'un Faune (1894) is based on Mallarmé's poem by the same name.

Despite the German influences, Debussy also adhered to typical "French" conventions, in the sense that he did not adhere to conventions at all. He had many things in common with the painters and poets in the Impressionist school - a characteristically French group. However, while much of his music was considered impressionistic, he remained separate from the Impressionists[7]. According to Gian-Paolo Biasin[8], Debussy was not an Impressionist, although many mistook him for one as a result of the titles of many of his compositions. Unlike the Impressionists,

Debussy and the Impressionists attempted to get away from the German standards of music. Debussy rejected the characteristically German sonata-allegro form. He also believed that Beethoven's formula, exposition-development-recapitulation, was obsolete, while most German serious composers still followed some form of Beethoven's plan[9]. Unlike the Germans, Debussy was opposed to the practice of leading into a different key. As is evidenced in all of his pieces, he preferred more elusive notes. One of Debussy's impressionistic achievements is his creation of an elusive form of music. He used ninth chords, which allow the music to exist within major and minor keys without remaining in one or the other.[10] Debussy was greatly influenced by the 1889 World Exposition that was held in Paris, in which music from China and Spain, among other places, was performed, and he was also interested in works by nationalist composers.

As much as Debussy attempted to revolt against the German ideals, he still followed the basic German principles of art. One of the main concepts of the serious aesthetic is the practice of looking back to the old to create the new. Debussy managed to do this, but in a very different way than the Germans, who had simply meant to encourage composers to look to Beethoven. Debussy went much further back than Beethoven. He was interested in the archaic church music of the Middle Ages, and he explored the intervals, namely fourths, fifths, and octaves, as well as the parallel movement used in that particular music. In their book, Machlis and Forney[11] explain in greater detail the ways in which Debussy and the Impressionists still fit into the serious aesthetic:

The Impressionists turned away from the large forms of the Austro-German tradition, such as symphonies and concertos. They preferred short lyric forms - preludes, nocturnes, arabesques - whose titles suggested intimate lyricism or painting, such as Debussy's Clair de Lune, Nuages, and Jardins Sous la Pluie. Without a doubt, Debussy and his followers rebelled against certain aspects of Romanticism; yet Impressionism continued the fundamental tendencies of the Romantic movement in its love of beautiful sound; emphasis on program music, tone painting, and nature worship; addiction to lyricism; attempt to unite music, painting, and poetry; and emphasis on mood and atmosphere. In effect, the Impressionists substituted a thoroughly French brand of Romanticism for the Austro-German variety.

In his own time, Debussy was highly regarded by his French peers. He was highly regarded by his close friend, and fellow composer, Ernest Chausson, and was also revered by later composers such as Bartók and Stravinsky. However, despite the fact that he was, in general, well accepted amongst composers, Debussy felt that his music too complicated for the masses. Penrose[12] describes Debussy's opinion, which is remarkably similar to that of A. B. Marx[13]:

While alive he [Debussy] was reclusive, a mild misanthrope, and a gifted troublemaker. He once proposed the creation of a "Society for Musical Esotericism" whose purpose was to keep good music away from the masses whom he felt cheapened and degraded it. Neither was his music designed for popular appeal.

Like Debussy, Marx had a strict view about music, and believed that only the serious German music was "absolute music." He denounced the French and Italian composers merely because of their nationality. Marx also felt that "absolute music" was "too complicated for the masses."

Debussy's ideas concerning "Musical Esotericism" are ironic in the light that he is now considered the main French Nationalist composer. Nationalism, by definition[14], is "devotion to the interests or culture of one's nation." In musical terms, this means composing a piece that any person of one's culture can identify with, and a piece that can be representative of the culture. Today, when one thinks of French music, Debussy immediately comes to mind, partially as a result of conceptions about the French. Debussy once said "French music is clearness, elegance, simple and natural declamation. French music aims first of all to give pleasure." One would think, after knowing Debussy's opinion concerning French music, that he would have wanted anyone and everyone to enjoy it.

Today, he is considered a Nationalist composer for several reasons. According to Machlis's book,[15] Debussy's "handling of the orchestra is thoroughly French, allowing individual instruments to stand out against the ensemble. In his scores, the melodic lines are widely spaced, the texture light and airy." Unlike German music, which is heavy, and Italian music, which is typically dramatic. As with some other French composers, a nationalist identity is created through the use of foreign elements.

Debussy Hovers somewhere between the serious aesthetic, and nationalism. Despite his important role in the creation of a French national identity, he also deserves to be considered a serious composer. His music, although performance-oriented, an idea strongly opposed by Marx, is also score-oriented, and would be altered greatly if musicians did not hold fast to the score. His pieces, while entertaining, contain esoteric concepts (according to Debussy himself). His pieces are not steadfast, but instead allow the imagination to wander-an idea that is exemplified in Nuages, which, appropriately, means "clouds" in French. In the same manner that one may see an elephant in a cloud while another sees an automobile, Debussy's compositions can be interpreted din different ways by different people. They are at times loosely programmatic, in such cases as Prélude à L'après-midi d'un Faune (since it is based on a poem), but they still allow the audience to use its imagination to a large degree-aided by the fact that the music is based on abstract, non-concrete concepts. Basing his music on poems was not a way to constrict the audience's imagination, because poetry itself was seen as a means of opening doors into the mind's realm. Strict, serious composers also based their music upon stories. Wagner's Tristan and Isolde is based upon a well-known legend.

In studying Claude Debussy, one can see that he was a turning point in the history of French music, and of music in general. Until his time, practically all French music was condemned by the followers of the serious aesthetic. At the same time, he managed to create a French national identity with his music, and transcended the "double bind" in which many nationalist composers found themselves. On one hand, he was a serious composer, but on the other hand, he was a nationalist composer, in a time when it was nearly impossible to be considered both. He combined the most important qualities of the opposing schools of music, and managed to do so without ruining the importance of the characteristics of both. Today, Debussy is appreciated worldwide, and not only is he viewed as a "French" composer, but his pieces, like Beethoven's seem to have an internationalist quality as well, placing Debussy above the rivalry between the nationalist and the serious.

[1] Botstein's article "Paris in the 1860s" appears on the American Symphony Orchestra web page: http://www.americansymphony.org/dialogues_extensions/94_95season/1st_concert/leon.cfm.

He further explains his ideas in "Against the Grain..."

[2]Debussy's biography on the BBCi page also mentions the resemblance of La Mer to a symphony: http://www.bbc.co.uk/cgi-perl/music/muze/index.pl?site=music&action=biography&artist_id=44542

[3] Debussy's visit with Brahms is described in "Inventing Claude Debussy" by James F. Penrose. http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/penrose2.htm.

[4] Botstein further discusses the three aspects of French music at the end of the nineteenth century in his article, "Against the Grain: The German Influence in French Music at the Turn of the Century," which appears on the American Symphony Orchestra web page: http://www.americansymphony.org/dialogues_extensions/96_97season/5th_concert/leon.cfm.

[5] "Debussy, Wagner, and 'Le Roi Arthus'" appears on the American Symphony Orchestra web page: http://www.americansymphony.org/dialogues_extensions/2000_01season/2001_02_04/huebner.cfm.

[6] Jon W. Finson. "Nineteenth-Century Music: The Western Classical Tradition." New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002. Page 124.

[7] According to Debussy's biography on the classical archives, "the label of 'impressionist', while accurate, has tended to obscure the strong sense of form which underlies all his works." http://www.classicalarchives.com/bios/codm/debussy.html.

[8] Explained in Gian-Paolo Biasin's book Montale, Debussy, and Modernism New Jersey: Princeton Univ. Press, 1989. Page 12.

[9] Joseph Machlis and Kristine Forney. The Enjoyment of Music. Eighth Ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1999. Page 370.

[10] Joseph Machlis and Kristine Forney. The Enjoyment of Music. Eighth Ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1999. Page 368.

[11] Joseph Machlis and Kristine Forney. The Enjoyment of Music. Eighth Ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1999. Page 369.

[12] "Inventing Claude Debussy." James F. Penrose. http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/jun02/penrose2.htm.

[13] The viewpoint of Marx is described in Sanna Pederson's "A. B. Marx, Berlin Concert Life, and German Identity."

[14] American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin, 2000. http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=nationalism.

[15] Joseph Machlis and Kristine Forney. The Enjoyment of Music. Eighth Ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1999. Page 371.