Ecotourism: Positive and Negative Effects

Ecotourism is described as tourism involving travel to areas of natural or ecological interest for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the environment. Ecotourism must do more than create a series of activities to attract visitors, it must offer them an opportunity to interact with nature in a way that makes it possible to preserve or enhance the special qualities of the site. With ecotourism becoming more popular, how will it affect the environment? Will the growing popularity do more harm to the environment than good? This case study examines the impact of ecotourism on an area in Wyoming called 'Jackson Hole.' The areas of research involving Jackson Hole are ecotourism and the ski industry, the economy, and the impact of Hollywood.
Ecotourism and the Ski Industry

The history of Jackson Hole dates back over ten million years ago. In the article, "Creating the Cowboy State" the author writes about how the state of Wyoming became what it is today. "Wyo- ming offered grazing area, timber, coal, iron, precious metals, marble, soda, oil-bearing shale, along with a "fine system of rail, stage and telegraph. Agriculture was also promising in 1877, but mining and stockraising still claimed "the greatest attention". Along with the ranches, farms, mines, and timber cutting, manufacturing and vital urban development were sure to come"(Knobloch, 17).It started out with little hope of having a soaring economy because of the lack of factories, buildings, and people in the state. Today, Jackson Hole is a huge help to the economy of Wyoming along with Yellowstone National Park and the Tetons. The population of the Town of Jackson is currently 8,452. Jackson Hole is a frequent name for this area and refers to the entire valley. "Neighbors include Bridger Teton, the largest national forest in the lower 48 states; Yellowstone, the oldest national park in the world; and Grand Teton

National Park, home of the Tetons, reportedly the most photographed mountains in the world" (JHMR) did not know these mountains were the most photographed in the world!. Lewis and Clark were the first to write about their experience at Jackson Hole in 1803 and before then no written documents existed about the area. It was one of the last places to be settled in the west. Jackson Hole is named after David E. Jackson who was part of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The concern for Elk started a long time ago because many of them were starving so the people of Jackson Hole helped feed them. This is what began the National Elk Refuge and they help feed over 7,000 elk a year. The National Elk Refuge here is one of 548 National Wildlife Refuges all over the country managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. An interesting fact about the Jackson elk herd is that they were used as a nucleus herd to restock other elk herds and elk reproduction across the country also interesting that there was a centralized population of elk used to replenish the rest of the country's populations. In the early 1900's people began making Jackson Hole a hiking, horseback riding, fishing, and hunting destination. The town is still said to have that "small town feeling".

In 1929, the area started to become a tourist attraction. Jackson Hole is famous for its skiing resorts and it has the largest vertical rise, which is 4,139 feet above Teton Village. There are nearly 3,000 people who visit the area every year to join the activities that go on all year long. In 1966, the area got its first aerial tram at the Jackson Hole Mountain Resort (JHMR). Recent studies have found that interruption by outdoor winter sports such as skiing, snowboarding and snowshoeing is a cause of stress for wildlife.

The ski industry is harmful to the environment because it takes away trees, shrubs, grassy areas, and many other plants ski slopes are between the forest and still allows for the natural forest to grow around them, do they really severely affect the environment that much? Don't golf courses do more damage to the environment than skiing?. It takes land, water, and other resources away from the wildlife that live in the area. Although, we can clearly see it affects the wildlife we still do not have enough evidence to fully support the statement. This is a frightening concept for all wildlife, but especially intimidating for the endangered species. Not only do the actual activities affect the wildlife and landscaping but the other construction such as aerial trams and lodges are just as bad for taking over the land. "The construction of ski lifts has pro-foundly modified the landscape through total destruction, degradation and/or fragmentation of the original natural habitats" (Wipfet al.2005).

When people first arrive in the West looking forward to places like Jackson Hole and Yellowstone National Park they usually head straight to their lodge or resort usually by a shuttle or a taxi. For transportation into town the city of Jackson Hole has public transportation system that is cheap and easy to access. Although, the town of Jackson has free parking most people do not rent cars because of the plentiful amount of snow in the area and if driving to Teton Village has daytime parking charges. Jackson Hole not only has skiing and snowboarding activities but they also have several other winter activities to join in such as snowshoeing, dog sledding, snowmobiling, wildlife viewing, snow tubing, sleigh riding, cross-country skiing, ice skating, snow kite boarding, heli-skiing, Nordic skiing, get a massage, go shopping, YURT, or just lay by the fireplace and relax.

In the article, "Of Growing Interest: How Green Is My Mountain?" People are wondering if all of these places claiming to be "green" and eco-friendly really are or not. Many of the resorts and lodges still only use things such as recycle bins to represent their eco-friendly way which are things that were from the infancy of our environmental awareness programs. "Members appear to be displaying free-riding behavior, expecting to improve their 'green' reputation without actually implementing it..." Studies show that these companies do not really demonstrate eco-friendly programs as much as they argue they do. Thomas M. Power, chairman of the Economics Department at the University of Montana, in Missoula basically says the fate of resorts lies in the hands of skiers themselves because whatever they want is ordered practically the same day. They are the people who have say in whether the industries change for the better or worse.

The National Ski Areas Association (NSAA) wrote a rebuttal in response to all of the criticism they were undergoing from environmentalist. They have to defend themselves in some way even if they are not doing all they can to help the environment. The NSAA writes that Jackson Hole Mountain Resort receives 10% of its electrical power usage through wind energy; this energy is used to power such things as chairlifts. They believe this is a help to the environment because the wind energy is clean and helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In order to help the vegetation in the area the NSAA has made a vegetation management plan which claims to be taking responsibility for reclaiming land in the area for native plant communities. I have been skiing to Colorado and Washington and both had locations that were closed for revegetation and they were very strict as to skiers going in these areas. There were workers that were actually parked near these areas preventing anyone from entering. So I do think that many of these places are responding to the criticism that they are receiving."We will locate and seek to protect the habitats of rare plants contributing to the biodiversity of the Bridger Teton National Forest" (Vegetation Management Plan). They hope to manage the spread of harmful weeds in the ski area. JHMR is trying hard to become more eco-friendly when it comes to waste reduction. "We are replacing all of our toilet paper, paper towels, tissues and napkins with 100% recycled materials that have at least 15% post-consumer waste and are unbleached paper products. JHMR now has a community recycling center in Teton Village" (NSAA).

In the book "The Unbearable Whiteness of Skiing" by Annie Gilbert Coleman, she talks about how white people started skiing and are still the dominant race of the sport. "Except for the manual labor workers and service employees, who are in many ways hidden from view, the ski industry has crafted unusually "white" settings within the American West". Minorities do not usually ski, but they do hold jobs in the areas doing things to help clean up and operate the resorts. The whiteness of the sport has historical roots because the European immigrants were first to discover the west and during the winter they were reliant on skis to get things done in the community such as mail, doctors, ministers, and it was the people's main way of transportation at the time. When ski advertisements for clothes, ski gear, and other things that fill ski magazines such as Powder, Chill Factor, and Backcountry, the Untracked Experience. Whenever any of these national ski magazines display images they give the idea that only white people ski. None of these pictures have anything to do with people of different races or ethnicities except for white people. How about basketball? The sport began with predominantly white men playing and now the white men are the minority in the sport and most of the advertisements (actually, almost 100% of them) feature black males. I would say the same goes for basketball for black people. "Like many popular images in the 1950's, ski industry advertisements featured blonde women and handsome white men achieving fulfillment through the purchase of a certain brand of ski, jacket, or package tour". This makes sense considering the best skiers during the 1930's had first learned to ski in Europe.

Not only does this sport have many issues with other races and ethnicities, but it has a lot to do with gender issues too. When skiing first came into play women still did not do anything too masculine. Once they started skiing the barrier between men and women in activities was broken. If a person was going to ski, then they were going to have to interact and associate with the opposite sex. Most people that participate in the West act as not only skiers, but tourists and consumers too. They do not realize that many of these concepts and things that go on there in our ski areas are things we learned mainly from European ski areas. The way the landscaping and lodges are presented, the clothing that is worn, and the atmosphere that is both physically and culturally different are all ideas from Europe to make people feel like they are really in the Alps. "Restaurant and hotel owners at western ski resorts also shouted their ethnic intentions. Names such as the Hotel St. Bernard, the Alpenhof, the Innsbruck Lodge..."

Hal Rothman has studied the impact of tourism on communities and he says it is like ''killing the goose that laid the golden egg''. Once something wonderful or extraordinary happens and others hear about it, then they all want a piece of it and somehow it gets ruined. The majority of people do not realize how detrimental their actions can be towards the environment. Although, it is natural to want to see and experience as many things as possible in a lifetime, sometimes it has a negative effect on they way things turn out. The larger and more occupied of a place, the more damage that is done to the environment and wildlife habitat in the area. Everyone knows our everyday decisions affect our future, but it affects more than just us. One must think about our environment and if what he/she is doing is hurting or helping everyone around them.

Ecotourism and the Economy

Tourism of any kind needs to be profitable to exist. Ecotourism attempts to balance conservation and preservation with economic gain. This section aims to provide examples of the trickle down effect different types of Ecotourism activities have had and continue to have on the city of Jackson Wyoming and the greater Teton county area commonly known as "Jackson Hole". It is the intent to focus on those attractions that have had a positive impact on the environment as well as mixed impacts on the economy and those who are employed in that economy. The Teton Science School, Grand Teton National Forest and National Elk Refuge are three sites that have had great impacts not only on the environment with education and preservation but also on the local economy for employment and secondary spending such as retail and hospitality services. This study will answer many economic questions: can ecotourism support a local population? What kinds of jobs are created? Do those jobs support local residents in a similar fashion enjoyed by the tourists themselves? What happens when tourists become permanent residents? In the end it hopes to evaluate if ecotourism is good or bad for Jackson Hole.

The Teton Science School in Kelly, Wyoming offers programs in environmental education for students from the third grade through graduate level. Established in 1967 it has evolved into four facilities with the main Kelly campus located inside Grand Teton National Park. There are residential and commuter programs creating "student tourists" who contribute to the local economy by way of tuition, lodging and local spending. The tuition in itself supports the economy as it in turn purchases local supplies and employs an educated labor force (Coupal 7). The school as a tourist site can be measured by the number of students coming from outside the local area and the amount of money that entered the economy from the school. Of the over eight thousand students who attended from 1997 to 1999 over 60% were from outside Teton County (Coupal 9). Yet the 40% of in county participants can suggest a community approval for the school. It is estimated that students spend on the average $544,530 in non-tuition related expenditures. The following shortened table provides a breakdown of those expenses for non-local students who lived off campus (Coupal 12).

Industry Non-resident Resident total

Trade 44,558 44,558 89,116

Eating/drinking 83,219 0.00 83,219

Lodging 176,923 0.00 176,923

Recreation 64,217 0.00 64,217

Imports 131,054 0.00 131,054

Total 499,971 44,558 544,530

The school generates fifty-four jobs with forty-five of those directly employed by the school, the rest are created by return investment in the local economy (U.S Department of Commerce). By this assessment the Teton Science School may not be an employer in great numbers but it directly supports the local economy in tourist/student cash flow.

The Grand Teton National Forrest and National Elk Refuge draw large numbers of Eco-minded tourists each year. Hunters in particular, as regular visitors spend large amounts of money. Hunters as a group as opposed to other types of tourists tend to have a single purpose in their trips. The U.S. Geological Survey asked hunters to complete a survey of just what they spent and in what industries so they may better manage the hunt areas and apply feedback as to the economic impact of hunting. Of the over 2000 surveys returned over half were from non-residents. The results showed local hunters spending on the average $338, non-local but state resident $402 and non-state residents $1,382. The services patronized included car and horse rental, guides, horse and human food, lodging, outfitting, game processing and taxidermy. It did not include fees for hunting licenses which averaged $37 for residents and $387 for non-residents (Koontz 6). While the amount of spending by non-residents is substantially higher, the number of actual trips taken by locals was greater. The average number of trips taken by local residents was 10.4, non-local residents 2.6 and non-residents 1.7 for Grand Teton National Forrest alone (Koontz 12).

The impact local hunters have had on the economy needs to be evaluated using only those hunters who are not of the local populace. It is the injection of new money into the economy that determines growth by tourism. The survey estimates the impact of hunters to have direct results. Per every 100 hunters and average of 2.08 jobs with salary of $39,067 each is created for Grand Teton National Forrest and 1.20 jobs with a salary of 23,650 for the National Elk Refuge (Koontz 13). Also based on this survey it was estimated that hunters in both areas of Teton County not only had an impact on the area but the state of Wyoming as they traveled on their way to the hunting grounds. It was determined that an estimated 60 jobs with a total income of $1,055,700 was created by hunters in Grand Teton alone, while the National Elk Refuge brought in 6 jobs and an income of $111,852. The economic impact of hunters can be seen as rather small compared to other forms of tourism (Koontz 16).

An additional survey was performed in 2004 of visitors to both parks. It questioned not only age and income statistics but the activities in which they choose to participate. The survey was taken of tourists who first choose the Sleigh ride as the primary activity and then choose other activities to complete their visit. The results were as follows:

Activity Percent also participated

Hiking 70.0%

Picnicking 47%

Pleasure driving 70%

Sightseeing 93%

Bird watching 5.6%

Horseback riding 0.7%

Snowshoeing 9.3%

Snowmobiling 26%

Snow Skiing 47.8%

Bison viewing 24%

Elk viewing 82%

Wildlife museum 58%

This was taken from a sample of 457 visitors. It also determined that the average tourist was willing to drive more than 500 miles and usually stayed at least four days (Loomis 12). Researchers used this study to determine if the number of tourists would change if there were changes made to the management of elk and bison herds. The questions posed were dependent upon tourists' willingness to change their favorite activities or substitute an activity for an absent one. In particular was the feeding of the elk and bison. As this was a long favorite of tourists, how much economic impact would it have if it were taken over or reduced by park management? It was determined that the average non-resident who came with the primary goal of sleigh ride with feeding spent an average of $149.00 a day per person on personal services such as food, park fees, shopping and lodging (Loomis 26). The result of the survey showed that reducing the number of feedings would affect the number of tourist visits whose primary aim included the feeding sessions. This example directly shows the impact ecotourist activities have on the economy.

Ecotourism has proven to have a positive impact on bringing tourist dollars to Jackson Hole but what about the people that provide the services required to make the vacations not only memorable but possible? Also, what of the tourists that choose to become permanent residents? The changes to the local population by tourism and inbound migration are often long reaching. High tourist areas attract different types of people, for this study they will be divided into three basic groups: Under 30 years of age, 30 to pre-retirement and retirees.

Most of the youngest group is what fills the lower paid, less skilled service industries. They are often temporary or seasonal help with no long term commitment to the area (Johnson 28). Recent community statistics show that over 75% of the population earns less than $60K a year with an average real-estate listing price of $1, 785,900 for 2008. While this average home price appears quite high in relation to the average income the lowest price offering found was a one bedroom/one bath condo for $350.000 (trulia.com). Still out of reach for most lower paid workers. So where do they live? Wyoming Labor Force Trends, a publication of the Wyoming department of Employment showed that in 2000 of the over 14,000 persons working in Jackson, over 7,000 came from outside the city itself. 703 of those came from established nearby towns but the rest were listed as unknown. They credit this to the seasonal nature of workers having residency in other states and large fluctuations of employment levels due to the seasonal work (Gerth and Glover 4).

In response to this imbalance of home price to salary workers either returns home out of state when the season ends or they commute from outlying areas. This can have a positive return on outlying areas for development of services such as schools and housing to cater to the commuters. One such development has been proposed by The Meridian Group to create a planned community in the neighboring town of Alpine. It will have affordable homes, shopping and postal service as well as a projected commuter bus to Jackson (Gerth and Glover 2).

Older potential residents come seeking not only the amenities offered by the area but also increase the demand for services of health care and public safety creating a draw for higher skills and higher wages. Retirees and part-time residents compound these needs but also provide economic growth. Need for construction crews, architects and designers increase with the demand for second homes yet part-time residents make fewer demands on services in their absence (Johnson 31). The balance residents, housing, salaries and services are weighed against the draw of tourism on the local ecosystem of humans and nature.

Ecotourism and Hollywood

America's film industry plays a part in Jackson Hole's economy. Jackson Hole has an old west feel, gleaming snow-covered Tetons, sunshine and low precipitation, which makes filming in this area easily accessible. This fragment is going to discuss the negative and positive affects that the film industry brings to the community. Can Jackson Hole keep its eco-friendly tourism with films being made in the area? Is the film industry good for Jackson Hole's economy? With all of the movies being filmed at Jackson Hole, how does it affect the people in the community?

Over thirty major motion pictures, in full or part, have been filmed in Jackson Hole. Examples of movies include John Wayne's Big Trail (1930), Shane (1953), Spencer's Mountain (1963), The Mountain Men (1980), The Wrong Guys (1987), Dances with Wolves (1990) and A River Runs Through It (1992). A few of the 'Russia' winter scenes from Rock IV(1985) were filmed at Jackson Hole. Besides films, many television commercials are made here every year. A few of the companies that take advantage of this beautiful location are Chevrolet, Jeep, Toyota, Levis, Maxwell House Coffee, and Ski Doo. The community has a western feeling, but it also has luxury upscale resorts which attract visitors, including celebrities. This appeal brings in more tourists, which boosts economy. Celebrities that frequent this Wyoming hideaway are Uma Thurman, Tiger Woods, and Matthew McConaughey. Sandra Bullock and Harrison Ford own houses near Jackson Hole. Occasionally, Harrison Ford uses his helicopter to rescue stranded hikers (Forbes.com).

The film industry affects Jackson Hole in many ways, including the environment. The volume of people filming puts a strain on the area, more people cause more pollution. Filming commercials/movies can be hazardous. One tourist complained about filmmakers that cleared out brush by the shore, which destroyed the ecosystem and his friend had hit a platform on the river causing her to ruin her kayak. (JHNews) What does the government do to keep Jackson Hole eco-friendly? To help control the hazards that can happen while shooting in Wyoming, the local, state, and federal governments have made a list of rules and regulations filmmakers have to follow. More than 50% of Wyoming's total land area is administered by federal agencies (Wyomingtourism.com). One of the regulations involves animal handling. Jackson Hole is known for its diverse wildlife, so filmmakers have to have permits for the import of trained animals for filming. A few examples of animals that someone would need a permit for include exotic birds and fish, elk, moose and deer. State parks and historic sites, like Yellowstone and the Grand Teton, require special permits and insurance coverage before shooting can begin. To help control air quality, vehicles used must comply with standard size and weight limitations and fuel permits are also required. The scenic tribal reservations are beautiful to make a movie in, but it needs to be protected. In addition to the normal permits needed to film, permits from each of the tribe's business council are mandatory. Also, anyone who is shooting in the Jackson Hole area has to purchase general liability with a minimum required $1,000,000 (some complex shoots require more). Other regulations set by the government include child labor, tax regulations, unemployment insurance, workman's compensation and tax regulations (WFAE).

Although problems have risen with Hollywood filmmakers, the production of films in Jackson Hole has helped the economy. The state requires anyone filming to pay fees to use land. The following is a fee schedule based on the size of the crew that all filmmakers are required to pay (WFAE).

MOTION PICTURE

...... STILL

1 to 10 people - $150/location/day

......

1 to 3 people - $50/location/day

11 to 30 people - $250/location/day

......

4 to 10 people - $100/location/day

31 to 60 people - $500/location/day

......

11 to 30 people - $150/location/day

Over 60 people - $600/location/day

......

31 to 49 people - $250/location/day

......

50 to 100 people - $300/location/day

Forrest Service requirements:

Motion Picture/Video

1-2 people camera & tripod only

zero

1-10 people

$150/day

11-30 people

$250/day

31-49 people

$500/day

Over 50 people

$750/day

Commercial Still Photography Rental Schedule

Number of People

Daily Rate for Location

1-10

$ 50

11-30

$150

30+

$250

Wyoming has an incentive program to promote filming in the state. The Film Industry Financial Incentive (FIFI) program is a cash rebate program for production companies. Companies can receive up to 15% on money spent in Wyoming during a film shoot. Some requirements are spending a minimum amount of $500,000 and additional criteria to qualify (WFAE).

The residents who live in Jackson Hole and the surrounding area benefit from Hollywood filmmakers. In the documentary 'Discoveries....America-Wyoming,' a man named Joe Brandl discusses his local business. Joe and his wife Jean own a business just outside of Jackson Hole called 'Absaroka Western Designs and Tannery,' where they tan hides that hunters bring in. Even though business is good, Joe knew he needed another market to keep his business going. He now makes costumes for local historic reenactments and costumes for the major film industry. He made Wes Studi's costume in Dances with Wolves, and a few of the cast members in the movie Wind River. The film industry, Joe discusses, is only worried about the clothes looking good on camera, but he wants everyone to know how the authentic old west looked. He wants viewers to get a clear image of history, so he will give technical support whenever he can. An opportunity came up for Wyoming residents when Old Milwaukee planned to shoot a beer commercial; there was a casting call for "Authentic-looking Jackson Hole fishermen." One newspaperman put it, "Looking for fishermen in Jackson Hole is like looking for criminals in the state pen" (JHN). When the public views a movie with gorgeous scenery, it brings out the curiosity of what the location really looks like. If a movie has a historical theme, a chance to visit a piece of real history interests many people. Like Tombstone, AZ, Jackson Hole employees dress up as cowboys and have 'shoot-outs' for visitors entertainment. With a number of movies filmed in Jackson Hole, the demand for movie location tours is on the rise. Tourists can now visit the locations where their favorite scene was shot. Having filmmakers interested in the Jackson Hole area creates jobs for the local residents and keeps tourists coming back.

As this study proves, many different forces interact to balance the ecotourism industry of Jackson Hole. Skiing, Hunting, and National Parks are just some of the attractions that draw people, both tourist and permanent resident to the area. It is this mix of people that have the responsibility to sustain the economy and ecosystem they utilize for business and play. Advertising, promotion and services are necessary to not only preserve the natural beauty but also the lives of those who call it home. Ecotourism in many ways is what keeps Jackson Hole the great attraction it has become.

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