Effects of Maternal Diet on Prenatal Development

Maternal diet plays an important role in the prenatal development of a child. Not only what a mother consumes during pregnancy, but what she intakes during preconception is important to the welfare of her yet to be conceived child. The ingestion of certain foods and supplements can offer protection from an array of prenatal malformations and conditions. While on the other hand, there are things a mother may ingest that can increase the likelihood of abnormalities and malformations in an unborn child. Many maternal dietary recommendations are based on research, and are recommended for the best possible prenatal development, for the conceived and yet conceived child.

Carl and Hill's article (2009) recommends the supplementation of folic acid. Folic acid can help reduce the risk of neural tube defects in an unborn child. The recommended does of folic acid is 400 mcg per day. This is the typical amount found in most prenatal vitamins. Simply by consuming this amount pre conceptually, can reduce the chance of neural tube defects, such as anencephaly and spina bifida by 70% (Carl & Hill, 2009). The neural tube begins to form in the third week of pregnancy. The neural tube will eventually develop and create the brain and spinal cord of a fetus (Carl & Hill, 2009). Since the benefits of folic acid are important in the very early weeks of pregnancy, it is recommended that all women of childbearing age should supplement their diet with folic acid (Bee & Boyd, 2006). All enriched cereals; pasta, bread, rice and other grain products are fortified with folic acid. The food and drug administration has required these foods to be fortified since 1998. Other foods that can help reduce the risk of neural tube defects, because of their folic acid content are peas, oranges, bananas, dried beans, peanuts, green leafy vegetables, and asparagus (Hoffman, 2008).

Examining dietary habits of pregnant women in relation to fetal growth and development can be performed. Knudsen, Orozova-Bekkevold, Mikkelsen, Wolff, and Olsen (2008) reviewed the correlation between maternal diet and fetal growth in regards to small for gestational age. They established two dietary patterns among pregnant women. The first pattern was referred to as a Western diet. Pregnant women in this group primarily ate large amounts of red and processed meat along with high-fat dairy. The second pattern was referred to as a Health Conscious diet. Pregnant women in this group primarily consumed large amounts of vegetables, poultry and fish. A third group of women were established as the Intermediate group. These women ate from both the Western and Health Conscious diet. Knudsen et al (2008) found that women who where part of the Western diet had a greater chance of delivering a small for gestational age baby, compared to the group of women in the Intermediate and Heath Conscious diets. The women, who were part of the Intermediate and Heath Conscious diets, were at no greater risk of delivering a small for gestational age baby when compared to each other. The study did not single out which micronutrients were important to fetal growth. Further research needs to be performed to define which macro- and micronutrients relate to fetal growth (Knudsen et al, 2008).

In Williamson's (2006) article she recommends that women eat a properly balanced diet, paying close attention to include foods that are rich in folic acid and iron (Williamson, 2006). Beans and spinach are just a couple of foods that contain folic acid (Bee & Boyd, 2006).

Williamson also points out that there are foods that should be limited or avoided during pregnancy. Marlin, Shark and Swordfish should be avoided due to methyl mercury. Methyl mercury may propose harm to a developing nervous system in a fetus (Williamson, 2006). Polychlorinated biphenyls, also known as PCB's, may also be found in fish. PCB's are a form of an industrial pollutant. They too can cause harm to a developing fetus. Consumption of potentally-infected fish should be limited. Women are also encouraged to avoid undercooked poultry, eggs and meats. These types of foods can contain parasites and propose a threat for the unborn baby (Bee & Boyd, 2006).

The March of Dimes recommends pregnant women include omega - 3 fatty acids in their diet. The three major omega - 3 fatty acids are Alpha-linolenic acid, Eicosapentaenoic acid, and Docosahexaenoic acid. Docosahexaenoic acid has been shown to support the brain and eye function and development of a fetus. The recommend intake of Docosahexaenoic for pregnant women is 200 milligrams daily (Omega-3 Fatty Acids During Pregnancy, 2009).

In Shuman's (2000) article on fetal alcohol syndrome she explains that the ingestion of alcohol affects prenatal development. Fetal alcohol syndrome may occur when a pregnant mother consumes alcohol during pregnancy. Alcoholics and heavy drinkers are at a greater risk of developing fetal alcohol syndrome. A number of babies born with this condition may exhibit cranial facial abnormalities, mental retardation and abnormal development. Neural crest cells are sensitive to alcohol. They are the cells that form the head and face of a fetus. At four weeks of pregnancy these cells are in place (Shuman, 2000). Shuman (2000) reports that while studies are not clear on how alcohol affects these cells, there are some suggestions from previous research. Studies show that cell multiplication, communication and migration are effected by alcohol during fetal growth. It may be a combination of these factors that give rise to fetal alcohol syndrome. During the embryonic stage when vital organs, brain, heart and kidneys are forming they are susceptible to the effects of alcohol consumption. This stage is the most susceptible stage for alcohol on an embryo. When alcohol is ingested in the later stages of pregnancy it may lead to development and growth problems. This is because during the early stages the organs have already formed (Shuman, 2000). In addition Bee and Boyd (2000) state in their book, that even a zygote and ovum may be affected by the consumption of alcohol (Bee & Boyd, 2000).

Pregnant women need adequate caloric intake and protein to prevent malnutrition. Malnutrition experienced by a pregnant mother can cause malformation of the nervous system in a developing fetus (Bee & Boyd, 2006). As Bee and Boyd (2006) claim in their book, a fetus that has developed in the womb of a malnourish mother, may experience a reduction in the volume and weight of its brain. This condition is known as brain stunting. Fetal demise can also occur if malnutrition is severe enough (Bee & Boyd, 2006).

A well-balanced healthy diet is recommended for pregnant women. Through research it has been found that certain nutrients, vitamins and supplements can actually support the healthy development of an unborn child. Omega-3 fatty acids and folic acid are just a few examples. There are also recommendations for what women should avoid during pregnancy. These items may actually cause malformations in prenatal development. Polychlorinated biphenyls and methyl mercury, which can be found in some fish, are a few examples. New studies and observations are constantly being performed. Through these studies and observations new links between diet and fetal development can be made. These studies will benefit the period of prenatal development. They will allow researchers to make new and added recommendations for the optometry development of an unborn child. One area that researchers are currently studying are the effects of micro and macronutrients, vitamins and minerals. They are being tested for their specific benefits for prenatal development. It is important to remember that research can be limited to some extent. For example it is unethical for researchers to allow fetuses to be put in harms way. Case studies of pregnant women and their nutritional habits, allow researchers to find links between dietary consumption and prenatal development. References

Boyd, D., Bee, H. (2006). Prenatal Development and Birth. In Lifespan Development

(pp.48-81). Boston: Pearson.

Carl, J., & Hill, D. (2009). Preconception counseling: Make it part of the annual exam.

Journal of Family Practice, 58(6), 307-314. http://search.ebscohost.com

Hoffman, M. (2008). Folic Acid and Pregnancy. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/

baby/folic-acid-and-pregnancy

Knudsen, V., Orozova-Bekkevold, I., Mikkelsen, T., Wolff, S., & Olsen, S. (2008).

Major dietary patterns in pregnancy and fetal growth. European Journal of Clinical

Nutrition, 62(4), 463-470. http://search.ebscohost.com, doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602745

Omega-3 Fatty Acids During Pregnancy. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.marchofdimes.com

/pnhec/159_55030.asp

Shuman, D. (2000). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Retrieved from http://www.hopskins

medicine.org/craniofacial/Education/Article.cfm?ArticleID=66&Source=Family&Lay

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Williamson, C. (2006). Nutrition in pregnancy: latest guidelines and advice. Primary

Health Care, 16(7), 23-28. http://search.ebscohost.com