Faustus and Renaissance Anxiety: Marlowe's Approach to the Humanity/Divinity Debate

For modern scholars, the Renaissance is an era marked by the rebirth of classical ideas, the first step out of the dark ages. It was not an era devoid of shadows, however. The Renaissance was also a period marred by an obsession with death. This morbid preoccupation with death is self evident in many famous works of art and literature dating from the 14^th to the 17^th centuries. It was also an era deeply imbued with the debate between the Humanity and Divinity. It is within this context that Christopher Marlowe wrote the Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, a play that brilliantly showcases his Marlovian ambiguity. By examining Marlowe's Faustus and contrasting with his source material, we will see how social anxiety and ideological debates are represented within his tragedy.

In the article "Death and the Devil" Lynn White, Jr. describes the Renaissance as "the most psychically disturbed era in European history," insisting that European societies during this time displayed an irrationality that "was symptomatic of abnormal anxiety," an anxiety that "arose from an ever increasing velocity of cultural change" (26). This cultural change was spurned by the secular shift from faith to reason, the abrupt acquisition of classical knowledge, and religious reformation. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus, illustrates one man's personal struggle with these anxieties. As Charles G. Masinton notes, Christopher Marlowe creates "a man typical of the Renaissance . . . because his tragedy occurs as a consequence of possessing too much knowledge" (115).

"Philosophy is odious and obscure"

During the middle ages, there was but one church, the Roman Catholic Church, and any form of doctrinal disagreement was labeled as atheism. This hard-line approach did not allow gradual evolution from within, forcing a drastic reformation by those who would be excommunicated. The new religious groups that developed would prove to be no more tolerant than their predecessor, however.

While Protestantism was flourishing in England, John Calvin wrote two books on the 'disease of disbelief.' [Des Scandels and Contre La secte des Libertins] Christopher Marlowe was attending Cambridge as an undergraduate when local Calvinists began debating over religious doctrine. In his article "Marlowe's Cambridge Years and the Writing of Doctor Faustus," Pinciss argues that Marlowe uses the Cambridge debates as an 'outline' for his play, believing that Marlowe used the hot topic of determinism to draw a crowd.

In Faustus, the Doctor has received his degree from the famous University of Wittenberg, the birthplace of the Reformation. Yet, it is this theological training that has convinced him that he is bound to the Devil. Much of the Reformation theology is based on the "hidden will" of God: that which is beyond the comprehension of man. Some theologians argued that since God was omnipotent yet chose not to prevent evil; it was obviously a necessary element in the overall Divine plan. John Calvin insisted that damnation was predetermined before birth. If this philosophy is correct, however, then many individuals would live their entire lives without hope of salvation. This possibility would no doubt create a high level of anxiety:

Their inherited axiom was that change was bad; Roman antiquity, or the age of the early Church, was their ideal. Any change, they thought, served only to put them further from that past Golden Age. Yet Change was all about, and resentment of it was compounded by guilt because the person who hated it in principle often profited from it in detail. (White 39-40)

In Marlowe's play, Doctor Faustus succumbs to this anxiety. In the first scene, he attempts to rationalize the possibilities of his own salvation, illustrating this high level of self-examination. He approaches the problem by comparing two bible verses: "the reward of sin is death" (1.1.40) and "If we say that we have no sin, / then we deceive ourselves" (1.1.42-43). Using classical methods of logic, Faustus concludes that if sin is death, and we all have sin, then inevitable "we must die an everlasting death" (1.1.46). Through this rhetorical argument, Marlowe may be implying that Faustus is not damned because he sells his soul, but rather, sells his soul because he believes he is damned. This opening plot device may have been a common argument amongst the anti-Calvinists at Cambridge.

Calvinism was at odds with Renaissance ideology, which placed supreme confidence on an individual's power of reason. In Calvin's Institutes of Christian Religion, he condemns the renewed interest in classical learning "philosophers hold as certain that virtues and vices are in our power . . . [but] surely you see . . . they credited man with more zeal for virtue than he deserved" (1:308). In scene 1, Faustus proclaims, "Sweet Analytics, 'tis thou hast ravished me" (1.1.6). Marlowe chooses an interesting term here, since the verb itself has a double, contradictory meaning expressing both violation and delight. In his article "Doubt's Boundless Sea; Skepticism and Faith in the Renaissance", Don Cameron Allen explains the Reformation mentality towards the Renaissance:

Some atheists learn their impiety from books; others are taught by their intellectual vanity and curiosity . . . but next to the prompting of Satan the main cause of religious disbelief is skepticism. (9)

Faustus suffers from all of the above, including the prompting of the devil. However, it is interesting to note how Marlowe's play differs from its source material.

"Oh Faustus, leave these frivolous demands"

Many literary scholars debate the true nature of the demonic yet seemingly empathetic character, Mephostophilis. Those who view Mephostophilis as a sympathetic individual cite the character's apparent use of full disclosure during his transactions with Faustus. In this light, he is viewed as a mere agent of the devil. Textural evidence for this argument, however, is sparse, and sometimes contradictory. In order to better understand what Marlowe was trying to construct, one must note the discrepancies between the Marlowe play and its source material. Although, The English Faust Book[*] depicts Mephostophilis as a stereotypical force of evil, Marlowe clearly alters the character by minimizing the elements of seduction, deception, and intimidation explicitly present in the source material. By doing this, Marlowe negates the good vs. evil dichotomy generally found in Elizabethan literature and creates ambiguous characters with psychological motives.

In Marlowe's source material, Faustus clearly falls victim to demonic forces. In a conversation concerning the nature of hell The Faust Book clearly illustrates the stereotypical view of temptation. Here Mephostophilis reveals how Faustus has been beguiled by demons:

why should we not help thee forwards: for so soone as we saw thy heart, how thou didst despise thy degree taken in Diuinitie and didst study to search and know the secrets of our kingdome; euen then did we eneter into thee, giuing thee diuers foule and filthy cogitations, pricking thee forward in thine intent and perswading thee that thou couldst neuer attaine to thy desire, vntil thou hast the help of some diuell. (Gent 18)

In The English Faust Book, Faustus feels that he does not have a complete understanding of heaven and hell since he has only studied the mysteries of heaven. Therefore, in the source material the demons use this curiosity to conspire against him. According to Marlowe, though, it is the heavens that "conspir'd his overthrow" (prologue.22), not the demonic forces. Also, according to the Mephostophilis in Marlowe's play, the demons "fly in hope to get his glorious soul" (1.3.49) only after they hear Faustus "rack the name of God" (1.3.47). That is, when Faustus begins to conjure using the name of Jehovah. The demons of Marlowe's world do not provoke the lead character, but rather, respond to the inherit flaws within Faustus.

In Marlowe's play, it is Faustus's desire for power that appears to be the overwhelming source of temptation. In the play, Faustus conjures a rather indifferent Mephostophilis. Marlowe emphasizes the process by which Faustus conjures the spirit, while leaving out an important aspect found in the source material. In The English Faust Book, Faustus begins to doubt "whether he were best to abide anymore such horrible Coniurings" (Gent 3) and is about to leave his circle when "the Diuel made him such musick of all sortes" (Gent 3) that sounded "as if the Nimphes themselues had been in place" (Gent 3). This rapturous sound causes the original Faustus to remain a while longer, rather than repenting his ways and heading home. Later, when Mephostophilis returns for the signed contract Gent's Faustus again hears "all manner Instruments of musick . . . the which so rauished his minde, that hee . . . forgat both body and soule" (Gent 8). Faustus is so seduced by the devilish music that he decides "never to change his opinion concerning what he had done" (Gent 8). In the source material, it appears quite evident that the author uses this form of seduction to show the devil's influence on the mind of Faustus, making him less liable for his actions. This seduction is not as visible in the Marlowe play where the title character seems to be influenced by his own greed for knowledge and power, making Faustus far more accountable for his actions and reducing the responsibility of the demons who eagerly serve his will. It appears that Marlowe intentionally removed references to paranormal manipulation in order to open his characters up to the Calvinistic debate. The changes in Marlowe's Mephostophilis also illustrate a sense of self-empowerment inherent in Renaissance individualism.

In The English Faust Book, Mephostophilis is a direct instrument of deception. On a number of occasions, this Mephostophilis blatantly misdirects the title character. During a conversation in which Faustus longs to know if the damned can once again reconcile themselves with the good favor of God, Mephostophilis answers "whomsoeuer Gad hath forsaken . . . [there] is no hope nor mercy . . . GOD will neither heare crying nor sighing" (Gent 18). This is an absolute contradiction to what the narrator tells the reader; those "falling to repentance truly" are able "to attaine the grace & holy Spirit of God againe" (Gent 18) and that "the diuel had blinded. Therefore, Mephostophilis is lying to Faustus whenever he makes a statement to the contrary. In The English Faust Book it is clearly the deception of the demons that keep Faustus in bondage to the devil.

Marlowe suggests that Faustus has the freedom to repent at any point after signing his contract, but does not because he is plagued by his own doubts. Vacillating even during his final hour, Faustus proclaims his desire to "repent and save his soul" (5.2.142), while assuming that he "must be damn'd" (5.2.144). In Marlowe's play, it is clearly Faustus who is his own worst enemy. This mirrors the anxiety behind the theory of determinism. No one could feel certain of their salvation if it was determined before birth.

The Mephostophilis from The English Faust Book is not only deceptive, but malicious. In Book 16, Mephostophilis seems to take a morbid pleasure in torturing Faustus's psyche. Mephostophilis aggravates Faustus' anxiety by telling him:

If I were a man as thou art . . . would I humble my selfe vnto his maiestie, indeuouring in all that I could keepe his commaundements, prayse him, glorifie him, that I might continue in his fauour. (Gent 22)

Yet, this Mephostophilis quickly 'reminds' Faustus that he has signed an oath to Satan and that his "great sinnes . . . are so odious and detestable in the sight of God, that it is too late for [him]" (Gent 22). We know from the narrator that this is a lie. It is obvious that this episode was designed solely to increase Faustus' despair, and amuse Mephostophilis.

In Marlowe's play, however, Mephostophilis reveals the agony of residing in hell before Faustus writes his blood oath:

Think'st thou that I who saw the face of God

And tasted the eternal joys of heaven

Am not tormented with ten thousand hells

In being depriv'd of everlasting bliss?

Oh Faustus, leave these frivolous demands

(1.4.76-81)

This certainly falls under the category of full discloser. In Marlowe's play, Mephostophilis clearly warns Faustus of the consequences of signing such a damnable contract.

The English Faust Book also clearly illustrates intimidation techniques used by the demonic forces, including Mephostophilis. When the Faustus from the source text conjures Mephostophilis and demands a wife, he is reprimanded quite harshly. In this text, Mephostophilis responds, "I wish thee to change thy minde: for if thou keep not what thou hast promised in thy writing, we will tear thee in peeces like the dust vnder thy feete" (Gent 11). When Faustus persists in his request, a "whirle-wine" (Gent 10) swept through the house as it filled with smoke, covering the floor with ashes. When Faustus tries to escape, he is "throwen into the hall" (Gent 11). The Devil then appears "fearefull and monstrous circle of fire" (Gent 11) saying "how likest thou thy wedding?" (Gent 11) Naturally at this point, Faustus recants his request.

In Marlowe's play, When Faustus orders Mephostophilis to fetch him a wife, he simply responds, "Marriage is but a ceremonial toy / And if thou lov'st me, think no more of it" (2.2.150-151). Mephostophilis then promises him "the fairest courtesans" and gives Faustus a book of incantations. This is enough to appease Marlowe's Faustus.

The Mephostophilis of The English Faust Book even threatens to rip Faustus from heaven if he should try to repent: "for if though shouldes climb vp to heauen, there to hide thy selfe, yet would thrust thee downe agayne; for thou art mine, and thou belongest vnto our society" (Gent 18). These threats are completely excluded from the Marlowe version. In Marlowe's Faustus men do not need to be coerced into self-destructive behavior. They are driven to their destruction by their own tragic flaws.

"Ah Faustus, Now thou hast but one bare hour to live"

Compared to Titus Andronicus and the Duchess of Malfi, the graphic nature of Faustus is mild. However, Marlowe does tap into the distressing reality of self-inflicted psychological torment. Paul R. Sellin best describes this shift in Renaissance theater:

As the public changed, of course, so did the assumptions on which artist built there works. A new range of emotions lay readily open for exploitation, and once dramatists learned to appeal to these emotions they were led to mold the kinds of objects-that is, deeds, characters, and feelings-which one finds in the best tragedies of the age. (176)

Though Marlowe uses elements of both Calvinism and anti-Calvinism in his play, the opposing views often tend to cancel each other out, indicating that Marlowe did not advocate either view, although as Paul Kocher points out, the theme within Faustus allows Marlowe "congenial opportunities of blaspheming without fear of being called to account" (104). Whatever his political motivation, it is most likely that this is where he began to develop "the religious skepticism for which he was to become notorious" (Smith 74). Smith notes that, with the exception of Faustus, Marlowe's work lacks "any great amount of religious imagery", unusual during "a period in which the church was so closely interwoven with everyday life" (77).

Marlowe utilizes the reverse tow of Reformation determinism and the forward thrust of Renaissance skepticism to create a drama that would engage theater goers. His characters are colored by the debate and anxiety of a society from which they evolved.

Works Cited

Allen, Don Cameron. Doubt's Boundless Sea; Skepticism and Faith in the

Renaissance. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1964.

Calvin: Institutes of the Christian Religion. vol. 1. Ed John T. McNeill.

Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960. 2 vols.

Gent, P.F. The English Faust Book. Online text http://www.perseus.tufts.edu

12/04/2006.

Kocher, Paul H. Christopher Marlowe: A Study of his Thought, Learning,

and Character. New York: Russel & Russel, Inc. 1962

Marlowe, Christopher. "Doctor Faustus." Christopher Marlowe: Complete

Plays and Poems. Eds. E.D. Pendry and J.C. Maxwell. London: J.M. Dent & Sons. 1976.

Masinton, Charles G. Christopher Marlowe: Tragic Vision: A Study in

Damnation. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1972.

Pinciss, G.M. "Marlowe's Cambridge Years and the Writing of Dr. Faustus."

Studies in English Literature 1500-1900. 33.2 (Spring 1993) 249-264.

Sellin, Paul R. "The Hidden God: Reformation Awe in Renaissance English

Literature" The Darker Vision of the Renaissance. Ed. Robert S. Kinsman. Berkley: University of California Press, 1974. 147-196.

Smith, Marion Bodwell. Marlowe's Imagery and the Marlowe Canon.

Folcroft Press, Inc. 1940.

White, jr. Lynn. "Death and the Devil." The Darker vision of the

Renaissance. Ed. Robert S. Kinsman Berkley: University of California Press, 1974. 25-26.

[*] P.F. Gent's vernacular translation of the German text