Feminism in Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Blithedale Romance

Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Blithedale Romance presents the story of Miles Coverdale, Hollingsworth, Zenobia, and Priscilla. Throughout the novel Coverdale narrates his obsession with these characters. Through his observations and thoughts, feminist ideals and philosophies are clearly evident, demonstrating Hawthorne's own beliefs, as well as oppositions to the theory. Feminism, as defined in Miriam-Webster Online, is "the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes". Zenobia and Priscilla are the embodiment and antithesis (respectively) of the feminist model. Hawthorne based Coverdale on himself, expressing his own views on feminism philosophy through Coverdale. Coverdale's views and actions conflict throughout the novel, as does Zenobia's. Zenobia, though described as a feminist, wavers on her beliefs under Hollingsworth's persuasion. The Cult of True Womanhood was a prevalent belief in the nineteenth century, and its principles are the underlying current cutting through the entire work. The popular theory that feminist Margaret Fuller was a model for Zenobia impacts the entire story. Zenobia as a possible literary reincarnation of Fuller says much about the storyline and Hawthorne's views.

Nathaniel Hawthorne struggled his entire life against the Puritan heritage left to him. Ashamed of his ancestor's actions during the Salem Witchtrials, he publicly criticized the severe Puritan ethic system. However, due to his moral sensibilities, he did not have the "enthusiasm nor the fatuousness of Transcendental optimism", and therefore was unable to "break free from the Puritan mode of vision" set out for him (Howe 289). His moral beliefs impacted his views on human life, sexuality, and the established social system. In the nineteenth century, feminism was redefining all these- - and causing Hawthorne to evaluate his own opinions.

That Miles Coverdale was written as a "highly distorted self-portrait of Hawthorne" is a substantial theory in the literary world (Howe 290). In The Blithedale Romance, Coverdale expresses his beliefs and theories on women and feminism. Because Coverdale is seen as a parallel to Hawthorne shares these same ideals. On the surface Coverdale seems to support the feminist movement, and supports Zenobia's speeches and ideas.

"I should love dearly- for the next thousand years, at least- to have all government devolve into the hands of women. I hate to be ruled by my own sex; it excites my jealousy and wounds my pride. It is the iron sway of bodily force, which abases us, in our compelled submission. But, how sweet the free, generous courtesy with which I would kneel before a woman-ruler!" (Hawthorne 112)

Hollingsworth replies with his own speech on the role of woman, one that is ripe with masochistic masculine egotism.

"She [woman] is the most admirable handiwork of God, in her true place and character. Her place is at man's side. Her office, that of Sympathizer; the unreserved, unquestioning Believer; the Recognition, withheld in every other manner, but give, in pity, through woman's heart, lest man should utterly lose faith in himself; the Echo of God's own voice, pronouncing- 'It is well done!' all the separate action of woman is, and ever has been, and always shall be, false, foolish, vain, destructive of her own best and holiest qualities, void of every good effect, and productive of intolerable mischiefs! Man is wretched without woman; but woman is a monster- and, thank Heaven, an almost impossible and hitherto imaginary monster- without man, as her acknowledged principal!" (113-14)

Coverdale is outraged by this speech, believing it to "deprive the woman of her very soul", and termed Hollingsworth a "despot" for believing such thoughts (114-15).

Coverdale also frequently touts the intellectual superiority of women, and praises Zenobia's vitality. Zenobia is portrayed as lively, outspoken, and very intelligent- very different from the nineteenth century idea of a lady. Coverdale writes as if he is refreshed by Zenobia, writing:

"We seldom meet with women, now-a-days, and in this country, who impress us as being women at all; their sex fades away and goes nothing, in ordinary intercourse. Not so with Zenobia. One felt an influence breathing out of her, such as we might suppose come from Eve, when she was just made, and her Creator brought her to Adam, saying- 'Behold, here is woman!' (17)

He ostensibly likes the feminist approach Zenobia portrays, becoming obsessed with the "mystery" of her sensuality. His preoccupation with Zenobia's sexual experience refutes anything he may say about her. By focusing on her sexuality, he diminishes her mind and spirit- the very things he superficially praises. Hollingsworth had the traditional stance on women, and narrow-mindedly adhered to it. While Coverdale doesn't subscribe to that same doctrine, his fixation on Zenobia as a sexual object is just as degrading. To further debase women, he writes that the "great event of a woman's existence" is her wedding night- a classic example of nineteenth century philosophy (43).

Despite Coverdale's attempt to disdain masculine superiority, and scorn the conventional female archetype, he repeatedly compares Zenobia and Priscilla to it. For instance, Zenobia's horrid cooking is mentioned frequently in the novel, almost as if Coverdale sees it as a personal affront. While sick, he suspects he is beginning to fall in love with Zenobia. So vexed by this predicament, he is further irritated at being brought food from Zenobia's kitchen, causing him to write:

"Then, too, her gruel was very wretched stuff, with almost invariably the smell of pine-smoke upon it, like the evil taste that is said to mix itself with a witch's best concocted dainties. Why could not she have allowed one of the other women to take the gruel in charge? Whatever else might be her gifts, Nature certainly never intended Zenobia for a cook." (45)

Not only is he upset at her horrid cooking, but it is also hinted that he sees her as a witch, driving him to his unnatural enthrallment with her. Furthermore, Priscilla is later revealed to be deficient in the kitchen, but it is merely seen as another of her "poor" little problems.

Coverdale fosters his feminist beliefs by continually commending Zenobia's 'unfeminine' virtues (intelligence, etc.). But his treatment of her as feminist is inconsistent. He treats Zenobia's writings and speeches as irrelevant discourse. He describes her articles as "poor little stories and tracts", diminishing their importance. As Nina Baym writes in "The Blithedale Romance: A Radical Reading", "Zenobia has become a female pamphleteer. The role is inherently unworthy of her. . . but it is the best she can do in a society that offers woman no worthy roles at all" (354-55). Coverdale reduces Zenobia to a mere reformist, struggling against a society reluctant to change the status quo. The lofty praises he bestows on her are discredited by his following thoughts. For example, in the following passage, he begins by praising, and ends by (covertly) criticizing.

What amused and puzzled me, was the fact, that women, however intellectually superior, so seldom disquiet themselves about the rights or wrongs of their sex, unless their own individual affections chance to lie in idleness, or to be ill at ease. The are not natural reformers, but become such by the pressure of exceptional misfortune. I could measure Zenobia's inward trouble, by the animosity with which she now took up the general quarrel of woman against man. (112)

Here Coverdale suggests that women are naturally subservient, only rebelling when circumstances force them too. By saying women are not "natural reformers", he thereby implies Zenobia (as a feminist reformer) is unnatural. This counters everything positive he says about the feminist movement. Though outwardly professing his disdain for the 'Hollingsworth' (or the traditional) view on women, his veiled implications say just the opposite. Often he comes very close to sounding exactly like Hollingsworth- only with a slight twist on words.

He has endowed her [woman] with the religious sentiment in its utmost depth and purity, refined from that gross, intellectual alloy, with which every masculine theologist- save only One, who merely veiled Himself in mortal and masculine shape, but was, in truth, divine- has been prone to mingle it. (113)

This view of women, though slightly different than the subservient attitude of Hollingsworth, went completely against feminist doctrine. While many women were trying to turn away from subservience, pedestal worship was not the respect they were looking for. Coverdale's words are still placed squarely in the values of the Cult of True Womanhood.

Priscilla is the very antithesis of a feminist, and the embodiment of a lady faithful to the Cult of True Womanhood. She often fades into the background, like the pale flower she's habitually portrayed as. "Poor Priscilla"(as everyone frequently refers to her) is the subject of Coverdale's attempted poetry- pastoral, romantic prose. She is a cross between girl and woman- fascinating both Coverdale and Hollingsworth. A sharp contrast to the exotic Zenobia, the two are complete opposites. Cynthia Freeland writes, in her "Woman: Revealed or Reveiled":

Outwardly, Zenobia and Priscilla could not be more unlink. Zenobia is dark, brilliant, graceful, full-bodied, at the height of her glorious womanhood. Priscilla is pale, gawky, coltish, an undeveloped girl. Zenobia has wealth, fame, and intellectual accomplishments, Priscilla is a poor, retiring seamstress. (52)

These differences establish Zenobia's role as feminist, and Priscilla's as a True Woman.

The Cult of True Womanhood was a prevalent belief system in the nineteenth century. In an ever-changing society, "a true woman was a true woman, wherever she was found" (Welter 152). As avowed in Barbara Welter's "The Cult of True Womanhood",

If anyone, male or female, dared to tamper with the complex virtues which made up True Womanhood, he was dammed immediately as an enemy of God, of civilization, and of the Republic. It was a fearful obligation, a solemn responsibility, which the nineteenth century American woman had- to uphold the pillars of the temple with her frail white hand. (152)

The Cult of True Womanhood consisted of four virtues a woman must contain: piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity, and "with them she was promised happiness and power" (152). Hollingsworth's position on woman harmonized with this philosophy completely, and Coverdale himself mirrored many aspects of it.

Zenobia, as previously stated, was the antithesis to this Cult. As religion was the one thing women were allowed, and one of the most important facets of character, Zenobia was decidedly "evil" by nineteenth century standards. A 1849 article titled "Woman as She Was, Is, and Should Be" stated "god increased the cares and sorrows of woman, that she might be sooner constrained to accept the terms of salvation" (Welter 152). Zenobia herself appears to wish for personal happiness, no matter the cost (financial or emotional). Throughout the novel she doesn't give the impression of a woman jumping to receive woman's obligatory sorrows. Though frequently lamenting woman's place in the household, her attitude seems somewhat mocking and nonchalant- not at all submissive. Only at the end, shortly before her death did she willingly her "woman's doom" (206). Zenobia is not a slave to God- and therefore man, according to nineteenth century principles- but to her own passion and will.

Priscilla's faith is not an important subject within the novel, yet she was raised in the True Woman ideal. She is content with Hollingsworth's speech on a woman's place in society, as ordained by (his) God, and reflects it in her own life. As Coverdale noted, "She seemed to take the sentiment form his lips into her heart, and brood over it in perfect content. . . the soft reflection of a more powerful existence- sat there at his [Hollingsworth's] feet" (114).

Zenobia's intelligence, too, was irreligious by nineteenth century society. As Welter notes, "Women were warned not to let their literary or intellectual pursuits take them away from God" and that "female irreligion [was] the most revolting feature in human character" (154). Once again, Zenobia is depicted as unnatural and evil- merely because of her intelligence.

Purity in women has been prized throughout the world for centuries, and it was no different in the 1800's. Alleged 'fallen women' were shunned from society, and often purported to go mad. Women were instructed that "the coldest reserve is more admirable in a woman a man wishes to make his wife [the ultimate goal], than the least approach to undue familiarity" (Welter 155). Zenobia's blatant sensuality was a slap in the face to nineteenth century propriety decrees.

Priscilla, of course, is the quintessential pure virgin, never giving any hint to a sexual awareness. Seen as very childlike, she is almost asexual. Through her role as the Veiled Lady, genderless ness is imposed upon her. Even after Hollingsworth draws beauty from her features, and declares his love for her, she has no passion or sensuality. Unlike Zenobia, who parades her sexuality, Priscilla only comes alive through a man (either Coverdale or Hollingsworth).

Zenobia, at the first of the novel is depicted as the very opposite of submissive. The Cult of True Womanhood demanded women submit to their masters (men) or they would upset "the order of the Universe" (Welter 159). Zenobia rebels against this virtue- until Hollingsworth. Under him, her will is bent, her passion extinguished in the name of love. Even after Hollingsworth voices his chauvinistic view on women, she submits. Yielding, "Well, so be it so, I, at least have deep cause to think you right" (115). This surrender of the feminist hero is unjustifiable. By totally capitulating to Hollingsworth, she tarnishes her own credibility. It is only after his betrayal does she attempt to regain her ground. In her and Hollingsworth's final confrontation, Zenobia admits her faults, but declares she is still a woman.

I am a woman- with every fault, it may be, that a woman ever had, weak, vain, unprincipled, (like most of my sex; for our virtues, when we have any, are merely impulsive and intuitive) passionate, too, and pursing my foolish and unattainable ends, by indirect and cunning, though absurdly chosen means, as an hereditary bond-slave must-false, moreover, to the whole circle of good, in my reckless truth to the little good I saw before me- but still a woman! (201)

Her powerful speech confesses her imperfections, and then totally obliterates the rationale condemning them. Ultimately, she is saying, no matter how 'bad' she is in his eyes, he cannot take her womanhood from her.

Her speech, nevertheless, is practically worthless after her later actions. Though she herself bomb lasted him, calling him a "monster", she defends him to Coverdale. She declares that his betrayal was her fault. Robert Weldon, in her "Tyrant King and Accused King: Father and daughter in Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Blithedale Romance" explores Zenobia's defense of Hollingsworth: "But in her final conversation with Coverdale, trapped between submission and assertion, she is again overwhelmed by self-hatred and hatred of her sex she accepts total blame for the failure of her relationship with Hollingsworth and believes she deserves punishment" (5).

Her suicide, however tragic, can be seen as her final act of rebellion against Hollingsworth and society. By refusing to submit to a life without him, and face the subsequent mockery of her friends, she chooses her own way out. Her death posture itself captures this struggle between submission and rebellion: "She knelt as if in prayer [a submission to God and man]. . .but her arms! They were bent before her, as if she struggled against Providence in never-ending hostility" (Hawthorne 217). Even in death Zenobia found submission difficult.

As she does the other True Womanhood virtues, Priscilla embraces the idea of submissiveness. She revels in her position, gladly accepting Hollingsworth's protection. her childish behavior fits the quote by Grace Green word in Welter's article: "True feminine genius is ever timid, doubtful, and clingingly dependent; a perpetual childhood" (160).

As Coverdale notes with Zenobia's lack of cooking skills, she fails miserably in the virtue of domesticity. Though she would sit with Priscilla and perform needlework and other household needs, she much preferred the intellectual pursuits. She did, however, visit Coverdale while sick. Since "the sickroom called for her [woman's]. . . beauty and usefulness", it was ideally the greatest place for a True Woman (Welter 163). Only Zenobia simply brought (wretched) food, and did no nursing.

Priscilla's occupation as a seamstress was acceptable for a girl of the lower class, and much preferred over Zenobia's public diatribes. Priscilla also took care of her father's house, unlike Zenobia who led a carefree childhood. And, of course, Priscilla emerges as Hollingsworth's nurse at the novel's conclusion- fulfilling her womanly duty.

Hawthorne's possible use of feminist Margaret Fuller as a role model for Zenobia has been argued since the novel has been published. Though Hawthorne denies the charge, the theory holds much weight. Fuller was often publicized as behaving in a queenly manner; one biography of her "points out that the manners Fuller adopted as a child can only be described as regal" (Cary 7). Ralph Waldo Emerson declared that she had a "predetermination to eat this big universe as her oyster. . . and to be absolute empress" (Stoddard 189). The name Zenobia stems from the Queen Zenobia of defied the Roman Empire. The character Zenobia is described frequently, by Coverdale, as being regal, asserting nothing could detract from the "queenliest of her presence" (41). Both Fuller and Zenobia were, obviously, feminists with literary pursuits. Both women's intellect was alternately praised and condemned. Other noticeable similarities between Margaret Fuller and Zenobia were there bodies and the way they dressed. Both women were considered full-bodied. Fuller was never seen as beautiful, a sharp difference from Zenobia, but instead focused on her intelligence to garner attention. Both women also wore a flower in her hair. Fuller taught for a short time at Louisa May Alcott's school, and there "many of her female students formed almost feverish attachments to" her- as Priscilla clung to Zenobia through most of the novel (Cary 4).

Margaret Fuller's works consisted mainly of articles, published in various newspapers and magazines- including The Dial, which she edited. Her book, Woman in the Nineteenth Century, dealt with the struggle between man and woman. Louise Cary, in "Margaret Fuller as Hawthorne's Zenobia: The problem of moral accountability in fictional biography", writes:

The main thesis which emerges, however, is that the first concern of both men and women should be the realization of the their spiritual, intellectual, and moral capacities, and that these capacities have very little to do with the accident of gender. In the end, she [Fuller] shows herself not entirely free of the sex-specific thinking so deeply ingrained in the nineteenth century. (5)

These are the very ideals Zenobia preaches in the novel. And like Fuller, she finds herself to not be able to fully shake off traditional notions of womanhood. Perhaps this is the reason Elizabeth Barrett Browning questioned "Was she happy in anything I wonder; she told me she never was" (Stoddard 189). Zenobia herself pondered this, asking Coverdale if he had ever "see[n] a happy woman"(55).

Hawthorne did not particularly care for Margaret Fuller, saying she had "not the charm of womanhood" (Hawthorne J. 260). Like Zenobia, she compromised her public avowals (primarily of chastity) for love. Though it is believed her and her lover did marry after the birth of their child, Fuller was a disgrace in the eyes of nineteenth century society. Her death, by drowning (like Zenobia's) caused him no sorrow. Instead he felt "Providence was, after all, king in putting her and her clownish husband and their child on board that fated ship" (Hawthorne J. 261). Perchance Hawthorne's view on Fuller and women in general can be summed up by his own journal entry: "I like her the better for it [Fuller's 'fall']; because she proved herself a very woman after all, and fell as the weakest of her sisters might" (Hawthorne J. 261-62).

Feminism was still a new concept in the nineteenth century, and only a handful of women dared cause an uproar. Most women were content with the status quo, including Hawthorne's own wife, Sophia. She wrote, in a letter to her mother,

I could never feel the slightest interest in this movement. It then seemed to me that each woman could make her own sphere quietly, and also it was always a shock to me to have women mount the rostrum. Home, I think, is the great arena for women, and there, I am sure, she can wield a power which no king or conqueror can cope with. (Hawthorne J. 257)

The novel shows that Hawthorne, despite pleas to the contrary, cannot shake this notion himself. Though Zenobia is shown as tragic figure, the real tragedy (for Hawthorne) was that she never accepted her role in society. Her feminist beliefs destroyed her soul and spirit, leaving her with nothing when the man she loved betrayed her. Priscilla, the weak sister through the novel, emerges as the victor. Priscilla "has been transformed into a being with an assertive, powerful identity" (Thornton 2). In the end she is not only physically strong, but has both men within her power. Hollingsworth depends on her for care, and Coverdale declares himself in love with her. In spite of the feminist overtones in the novel, the underlying message promotes the Cult of True Womanhood over feminist canon.

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