Gender Stratification in "Daisy Miller: A Study" and "Roman Fever"

Since the dawn of man, societal roles and behavior have differed between the sexes. Even in today's modern and progressive society, women continue to be judged more harshly than men for their behavior, particularly when it comes to sexual impropriety. Not only are a woman's actions judged more critically, but within the American society, we often see other women acting as a woman's harshest critics. This societal characteristic is all too pronounced in two literary works: "Daisy Miller: A Study", and "Roman Fever". In both stories, women are painted as the ultimate judge of morality; but the women, not men, seem to be the only ones judged and held accountable to society for their actions.

Throughout the years, women have been portrayed as the "gentler sex", protected and sheltered by men. Society typically categorizes women into "good girls" or "bad girls", "ladies" or "tramps". This categorization does not apply to the male gender, though. Men are expected to experiment sexually, without risk of being viewed as loose, crude, or anything but a gentleman. However, anything approaching the same behavior in a young lady would instantly receive criticism and the young lady would be ostracized from society. In an article written in 1886, Josephine Butler states, "...we are at once brought into contact with the false and misleading idea that the essence of right and wrong is in some way dependent on sex. We never hear it carelessly or complacently asserted of a young wom
These distinctions are most apparent in Henry James' story, "Daisy Miller: A Study". The central characters, Mr. Winterbourne and Daisy Miller, are both young Americans living and traveling abroad in Europe, socializing with other Americans living abroad. This microcosm of American society allows the reader to clearly see how Daisy is condemned for what is viewed as less than ladylike behavior, while Winterbourne is not held accountable or snubbed in the least because of his actions.

Mr. Winterbourne has maintained an intimate relationship with an anonymous lady for some time, "...the reason of his spending so much time at Geneva was that he was extremely devoted to a lady who lived there - a foreign lady - a person older than himself" (James, 281). We also find out that there have been previous forays into less than ideal relationships for him: "He had known, here in Europe, two or three women - persons older than Miss Daisy Miller, and provided, for respectability's sake, with husbands - who were great coquettes - dangerous, terrible women, with whom one's relations were liable to take a serious turn" (James, 286). Never once did these insights prevent Mr. Winterbourne from being accepted socially. However, when Daisy Miller develops an intimate friendship with the Italian gentleman, Mr. Giovanelli, she is scorned, talked about, and ridiculed within the social group, "...there was a great deal said about poor little Miss Miller's going really 'too far'" (James, 312).

Mr. Winterbourne and Daisy spend a good deal of time together as well. Neither Mr. Winterbourne nor Mr. Giovanelli is ever given responsibility for leading Daisy astray; only Daisy is given the full burden for any impropriety. For instance, upon hearing that Daisy planned to visit the Chateau de Chillon with Mr. Winterbourne unescorted, Mrs. Costello refused to meet Daisy, "'I must decline the honour of her acquaintance. I am an old woman, but I am not too old - thank Heaven - to be shocked!'" (James, 290) However, even though Mr. Winterbourne was just as responsible for the two of them going to the castle, his aunt had nothing to say concerning his actions; she only blamed Daisy. She reinforced man's guiltlessness when she commented, "'Of course a man may know every one. Men are welcome to the privilege!'" (James, 298) Again, while walking with both Winterbourne and Giovanelli through the Pincio, the responsibility was Daisy's alone. Mrs. Walker found only Daisy to be at fault, "'That girl must not do this sort of thing. She must not walk here with you two men'" (James, 304), as if the men had no decision regarding the matter.

Ironically, those judging Daisy the harshest are women. Competitiveness within the women seems to push the women to judge what is right and wrong, based on jealousy and envy as much as religious and social morals. We also see this competitive spirit forming moral judgment and actions in Edith Wharton's story, "Roman Fever", where again, the focus is the moral decisions made by women and the male is blameless.

As the story unfolds we learn that both ladies, in their youth, loved Delphin Slade, and Mrs. Slade realized this and thought of Mrs. Ansley as a threat. For this, she had always considered Mrs. Ansley an adversary, "Would she never cure herself of envying her?" (Wharton, 1072)

The story evolves to paint the picture of a female competition in which Delphin is but a pawn, blameless and controllable by women. The women's energies were spent toward each other, but even Mrs. Slade held no resentment for Delphin and the role he may have played, she only hated Mrs. Ansley, "'I knew you were in love with Delphin - and I was afraid; afraid of you, of your quiet ways, your sweetness...you...well, I wanted you out of the way, that's all'" (Wharton, 1074). She felt that Delphin had no accountability for making his own decisions, she only blamed Mrs. Ansley. Mrs. Ansley reinforces this by confirming that upon receiving the "invitation", Delphin could not pass up the opportunity for intimacy, "'But of course he was there. Naturally he came-'" (Wharton, 1076). Men are once again painted as not being accountable for the same morals as women. Even after hearing that Mrs. Ansley had been intimate with Delphin, she still felt no injury as a result of Delphin's actions, only Mrs. Ansley's.

In recent decades, society's harsh judgment of women's morals has become less severe, but it still does not measure equally when compared to men's. In some respects, words written by Butler in 1886 still apply today: "It is a fact, that numbers even of moral and religious people have permitted themselves to accept and condone in man what is fiercely condemned in woman" (Butler).

Works Cited

Butler, Josephine. "The Double Standard of Morality", The Philanthropist, 1, (October, 1886). [Online] Available: The W.T. Stead Resource Site. < http://www.attackingthedevil.co.uk/otherworks/morality.html >. Accessed February 20, 2003.

James, Henry. "Daisy Miller: A Study." The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 4^th ed. Volume 2. Ed. Patricia A. Coryell. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 280 - 319.

Wharton, Edith. "Roman Fever." The Heath Anthology of American Literature. 4^th ed. Volume 2. Ed. Patricia A. Coryell. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002. 1067 - 1076.