Guide to the Teaching of Comparisons

Summary from grammar reference books

The following information is a summary of data found in Leech and Svartvik's A Communicative Grammar of English (1975). The uses of comparison are broken up into eight sections. The first section describes how to compare two things using comparative words (taller, happier) and phrases (less tall than, is more faded). The next section explains how to express and negate equal comparisons, using the as….as structure.

The third section introduces superlative forms, "Susan is the tallest of the three". It is also noted that when superlatives are used, the preposition "of" is used to indicate the object. The fourth section highlights comparison with a definite noun. Definite nouns are nouns that are considered to be "understood in context" or "the norm", and the comparative phrase is often omitted in these types of comparatives. An example is, "Foreign cars are becoming more popular", where the comparative phrase would be "than they used to be". It is not necessary to include the comparative phrase because it is thought to be understood.
The fifth section introduces 'enough' and 'too'. These words are said to indicate sufficiency and excess. For example, "He's rich enough to own a car" and "He's not too poor to own a car." With the use of these words, the reference is sometimes omitted when the meaning is obvious, "Is the coffee sweet enough?" The sixth section uses the structure "so…that" and "such…that" to express a similar meaning. "It's such a good chance that we mustn't miss it". The seventh section highlights the comparison with nouns using "more of a," as in the sentence "He's more of a sportsman than his brother." The final section deals with proportion in order to compare circumstances in terms of equivalent tendencies, "As time went on, things got worse and worse."

The following information comes from: The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher's Course p. 717-738. There are two chapters in The Grammar Book that focus on comparisons, one titled comparatives and equatives and one titled superlatives. The authors make a point for presenting the two separately because both are used in different contexts. Each should be taught in its own context, the comparative first and the superlative at a later time. Many languages do not have both comparative and superlative structures. The authors define superlatives as stating extremes on a given scale and comparatives as looking at two points with regard to the individuals.

There are four common ways to express comparisons in all languages of the world. They are: comparisons by juxtaposition, limited scope comparison, "surpass" comparatives, and comparison using degree morphemes. The most common errors encountered when learning comparisons are: omission of comparative inflection, substitution of other function word for than or inappropriate use of than, use of more where -er is required or vise versa, use of regular pattern where irregular form is required, and double marking of comparisons. The first three reflect a learner's native language, while the last two reflect a young learner in first language acquisition.

Both comparisons and superlatives can be used with every part of speech in English. The same 5 basic rules are used for each when forming the comparison. The adjective or adverb may take an inflectional ending, or a periphrastic form may be used. Adjectives and adverbs with one syllable take an inflectional ending, as do 2 syllable adjective with the final unstressed -y ending. Adjectives with 2 syllables that have a stressed first syllable and an unstressed second syllable ending in -ly, -ow, or -le also take the inflectional ending. All 2 syllable adverbs ending in -ly and do not have an adjective homophone ending in -ly take the periphrastic ending. The periphrastic form is used on adjectives or adverbs with two syllables with any other ending and all adjectives and adverbs with 3 or more syllables.

There are also marked and unmarked comparatives. Unmarked are used more frequently and are the first ones learned, while marked are used less frequently and learned later. In the superlative the periphrastic form most is unmarked and least is marked, making the superlative more marked than the comparative.

The equative is used when there is a presupposed degree of similarity. The common structure is: X (is, has, etc.) as (MUCH) A as Y. It also can occur with the four major parts of speech. The equative, unlike comparisons, can take a negative form. The word so can also be used to replace the first as when it is immediately preceded by not as well as certain other negative words. The equative is thought of in the sense of "same or more".
Activities recommended for the teaching of comparisons:

Activity 1
The following activity was found on an ESL website (www.eslgo.com/classes/richienash.html), created by James Trotta (2004). The activity asks students to make comparisons of the author's two cats, Richie and Nash.
Students are given several examples of how to use adjectives in order to compare the two cats. The first example is; "Richie is older than Nash. Nash is not as old as Richie". Students are then encouraged to practice with several other adjectives such as, young, fat, and thin. This activity is obviously limited in the types of adjectives students are able to use; however, it gives students a chance to practice making comparisons. These adjectives also all conveniently involve adding -er, rather than the words more, less, better, ect. This is most likely to give students consistency with one of the basic types of comparison forms.

Activity 2
Another activity we were able to find is actually a game, allowing students to use comparatives at a high speed. This game is called "Crazy Comparatives at High Speed" and was sent in to eslcafe.com by Vanessa McDaid. It was noted that this game has been used successfully with all learning levels. In order to play, the teacher uses about 30-40 note cards with different nouns printed on each card. The students are then divided up into two lines, and the first person in each line draws a card and reads it aloud. The first student to make a correctly structured comparative sentence of the two nouns gets a point. Whichever team receives the most points by the end of the game wins.
Activity 3
A final on-line activity we selected is entitled, Superlative Island, compiled by Peter Snashall. This activity involves the use of island outlines which serve as a handout for students. The students are then given ideas of what to put on their islands. Some of these are; places and things, means of transportation, problems, attractions, and weather. They then stick their maps on the wall and walk around and ask questions about the islands using the superlative forms. Sample questions can be; what are the two most interesting places on your island? What is the most famous attraction?
This activity is found at: www.eslflow.com/superlativeisland.html

Textbook Activities
Activity 1
This activity is taken from Grammar Form & Function 1, by Milada Broukal.
Students are presented with pictures of two different houses. Students are shown how to describe pictures by using comparisons. The students are then given adjectives and must fill in the blank with the proper form of comparative. An example of this is "small____"; the correct answer is "smaller than". The students are also given a chart in which they can refer to when searching for the proper form. The reference chart has 4 different categories based on the rule that applies. Of course, there is only a brief list of comparative adjectives given; however, students should be able to apply these rules to other adjectives.

We chose these activities because we found comparatives to be presented in a simple and concise way. We also feel that learners will be able to grasp these patterns and apply them. This book also introduced superlatives and equality forms in a similar way. We also found this text to offer a more aesthetic visual of comparative forms.

Activity 2
The following inductive activity comes from A Communicative Grammar Interactions one: Third Edition. This activity is broken down into 3 separate parts. Learners are first presented with The Save-a-lot market. This is basically a picture representation of a market. A conversation takes place between two customers. Students are then asked to answer comprehensive questions in which they must use comparative forms. For example, why does Diane buy brown rice? She buys it because the brown rice is healthier. Students are then introduced to rules and examples using comparative structures. The second part deals with underlining the phrases with as…as in the conversation. This is meant to give students a chance to recognize this type of comparative form. The third part gives two pictures in which the students compare two items using the adjectives provided. For example, two pictures of cake need to be compared with the adjective expensive. This exercise allows students to practice using comparatives with various types of adjectives. We selected this combination of exercises because they allow students a chance not only to recognize comparative forms, but also to practice using them.

Activity 3
This activity comes from Jack Richards, New Interchange: English for International Communication. We were able to investigate the student's edition as well as the teacher's edition for this text. Learners are given examples of various comparative forms. They are then given various adjectives and asked to provide the correct comparative form. They are also presented with a rule chart in the student's textbook, similar to other comparative charts. This chart gives comparative adjectives and examples.
We selected this text and activity because it offers a clear and concise way for learners to gain a basic understanding of comparative forms.

Examples from Spontaneous Speech
"Even her baddest is better than my best."
"He eats more than both of us put together."
"Tim is as old as Nathan."
"This is the hardest assignment we've had all year."
"The second one was more difficult."
"A few more examples would make our paper better."
"If only we were more educated we would be able to get real jobs."
"My dad looks more like Saddam Hussein than that guy."
"If you would drink less coffee, you probably would be able to sleep better."
"As little as twenty-eight dollars a month could support a child through Compassion International."
Annotated Bibliography
Erlich, E. & Murphy, D. (1991). Schaum's Outline of English Grammar.
New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

This text is an excellent tool for English grammar learners and teachers. Several elements of grammar are included; elements of the sentence, nouns and articles, verbs and verbals, adjectives, and several others. Within the adjective section of chapter five, specific attention is given to comparison of adjectives. Learners are given three categories of comparative adjectives which include: absolute, comparative, and superlative. The text continues to explain when each form is used, and gives several examples of how each form is used. Learners are then given a chance to supply the proper comparative or superlative forms in sample sentences.

Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1973). A concise grammar of Contemporary English.
Great Britain: Seminar Press.

This text is a follow up to the text, A Grammar of Contemporary English, by the same author. The goal of this text is to meet the needs of students in a more clear and concise way. For this reason, we found this source to be appropriate for students. Some of the grammar elements highlighted include: sentence elements, the verb phrase, nouns, pronouns, the basic noun phrase, adjectives, and adverbs. Each of these subjects is also broken down into several subtopics.
A specific section found in chapter 5 of this text deals with comparison and intensification. Within this section three degrees of comparison are noted; absolute, comparative, and superlative. The text explains when each form is used and gives several examples. The entire section is only two pages long, which elucidates the fact that this book is meant to clearly and concisely explain grammar points.

Keyser, S., J., & Postal, P., M. (1976). Beginning English Grammar.
NY: Harper & Row.

This is not a reference grammar; instead it is a manual for those interested in the grammar of the English language. The basis for the book is that there is not much that is known about the grammar of English, and there is still much more to be added. This introduction to grammar is not presented in the form of a complete set of rules, but as
a fragmented account of the patterns of English grammar. It is organized in a "step-by-step" fashion. Each chapter builds on what was presented in the previous ones. All chapters begin with a preview section, followed by a long text section, and end with a brief summary of what was presented. The book ends with a list of suggested readings.

Kolln, M. (1982). Understanding English Grammar.
NY: MacMillan Publishing Co.

The goal of this book is to describe the rules of English grammar so they will be understandable and accessible to speakers and writers of English. The book begins with the ten basic sentence patterns and the system for expanding the verb along with the ways of reordering or transforming basic sentences. The next part deals with speech and classification of words. After that, we are shown how modifiers are added to sentences and how ideas are coordinated and subordinated. The last part has common questions about usage. Chapter 5 is titled The Form Classes, and in the adjective and adverb sections there is a short discussion of comparisons. The book explains what they are and how they are formed followed by a short activity to practice the structures. The book is well formatted and easy to read. It is suggested not only for native speakers, but learners of English as well, as a guide to the language.

Preisler, B. (1992). A Handbook of English Grammar on Functional Principles.
Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.

This text was printed during the movement towards communicative language teaching, and introduces several concepts as a part of that idea. The book is not a reference grammar, because it does not contain the same amount of detail. However, it does present language "as a system of options, with a view to the construction of texts."
Some of the elements of grammar that are focused on include: the structure of the clause, the noun phrase, pronouns, adjectives and adverb phrases, and several other subtopics within each of these categories.
Comparisons are mentioned in the adjective section. Learners are assumed to have already learned the basic meanings and uses of comparatives and superlatives. This text takes learners a step beyond this knowledge by giving them slightly more detail on how they are used. This text provides learners and teachers with a valuable resource when looking for a way to categorize comparatives and understand their usage.

Likely Learning Difficulties
There are several difficulties that learners are likely to face when learning and using comparative forms. One difficulty is that learners may not be aware of the rules that apply to comparative forms. For example, the fact that adjectives containing two or more syllables take the "more" form. Learners may try to apply the "more" form to adjectives with only one syllable. For example, "my clothes are more clean" is incorrect because of the number of syllables. The proper form is "my clothes are cleaner".

Another likely difficulty for learners may be the desire to overcompensate for the rules and apply both comparative forms. For example, "my clothes are more cleaner".

Another learning difficulty deals with irregular forms. Learners are more likely to use gooder than better. They are also likely to use badder than worse.

Finally, The Grammar Book also noted, "when possessive pronouns replace a clause, it can cause a problem for learners." For example, "His car is bigger than mine." "Mine" refers to the car, but learners may mistakenly think that mine refers to the person.
The most common errors learners make include: omission of comparative inflection, substitution of other function word for than or inappropriate use of than, use of more where -er is required or vise versa, use of regular pattern where irregular form is required, and double marking of comparisons. The first three deal with a learner's language, while the last two emulate a young learner in first language acquisition.

Frequently Asked Questions
One frequently asked question deals with which comparative form to apply and why. For example, when do you add -er vs. adding the word "more" before the adjective? A good way to explain this to learners is by explaining that the amount of syllables in the adjective affects what kind of form it will take.
Another question is how to determine which adjectives take irregular forms? For example, are learners to simply memorize irregular forms, or is there a certain pattern involved. Many reference grammars and text books simply ask students to memorize these forms. There may be certain mnemonic devices, however, that students can use to categorize these adjectives.

Another question deals with which types of forms to use when dealing with countable vs. uncountable nouns. For example, with countable nouns, the forms: "as many as" and "as few as" are used. However, with noncountable nouns, the forms: "as much as" and "as less as" are used.
Also, is it possible to use comparisons with other parts of speech such as nouns and verbs?
The answer is yes, they can be used with any part of speech. (My friend has more money than I do, vs. My friend is prettier than I am.)

Sources Used:
Broukal, M. (2004). Grammar Form & Function 1
New York: McGraw-Hill companies.

Erlich, E. & Murphy, D. (1991). Schaum's Outline of English Grammar.
New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Greenbaum, S. & Quirk, R. (1973). A concise grammar of Contemporary English.
Great Britain: Seminar Press.

Jack, D. & Kirn, E. (1996). A communicative Grammar: Interactions One (3rd ed.).
New York: Mc-Graw Hill Companies, Inc.

Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1975). A communicative grammar of English.
New York: Pearson.

McDaid, V. (2003). Dave's ESL café Idea Cookbook. Crazy Comparatives at High
Speed. Retrieved April 12, 2004 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.eslcafe.com/ideas/sefer.cgi?display:924995654-20835.txt

Preisler, B. (1992). A Handbook of English Grammar on Functional Principles.
Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press.

Richards, J.C. (1997) New Interchange: English for International Communication.
New York: Cambridge.

Snashall, P. (1999). ESLflow.com Superlative Island.
Retrieved April 12, 2004 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.eslflow.com/superlativeisland.html

Trotta, J. (2004). ESLgo.com. Richie and Nash
Retrieved April 12, 2004 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.eslgo.com/classes/richienash.html