Harald Hardrada: King of Norway

Harald Hardrada is best known for his failed attempt to conquer England in the fall of 1066, but the invasion of England was only a small part of Harald's adventurous life. Hardrada, born Harald Sigurdsson, was the youngest half-brother of King Olaf II of Norway. When he ascended the throne himself as King Harald III of Norway, he attained the moniker Hardrada (alternately, spelled Hardrade or Harðráði), meaning "hard-rule." His death in 1066 is largely considered to be the end of the Viking era.

Much of the information we have about Harald Hardrada comes from Heimskringla, a chronicle of Norwegian kings by Snorri Sturluson, an Icelandic historian of the late 12^th and early 13^th centuries. Heimskringla draws on a number of other sources, among them Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna, a pair of earlier works by unknown authors.

Of Harald's early life, we have little information. He was the son of Åsta Gudbrandsdatter, mother of Olaf II, and Sigurd Syr, a minor king or lord in southern Norway. According to Sturluson, Harald was a brave and ambitious child: when Harald was three, his mother Åsta presented Harald and his brothers, Guthorm and Halfdan, to King Olaf. The other boys, though older, were frightened of Olaf, but Harald met the king's stare steadfastly, and, when the king pulled the boy's hair, Harald retaliated in kind. Later, when Olaf asked the boys what they would like to own, Guthorm and Halfdan replied that they would like, respectively, great fields of grain and large numbers of cattle. Harald, when posed the same question, replied that he wanted to own enough housecarls to devour all of his brothers' grain and cattle in a single meal.[1]

Harald reappeared several years later, in 1030. Though only fifteen at the time, Harald participated in the Battle of Stiklestad, fighting against the forces of Canute the Great. Olaf seems to have been uncertain about allowing Harald to engage in the fighting, but Harald insisted, stating, "If I am so weak as not to be able to wield a sword...let my hand be tied to the haft."[2]

The battle turned out badly for Olaf and Harald; King Olaf was slain, and Harald wounded. With the aid of Rognvald Brusason, Earl of Orkney and one of Olaf's strongest supporters, Harald escaped to Sweden, and then to Russia, where he and Eilif, Rognvald's son, became soldiers in the employ of King Yaroslav (called Jarizleif by Sturluson).[3] Harald remained in Yaroslav's service for a few years, before moving on to Constantinople (called Miklagard by the Norwegians), to seek his fortunes in the service of the Byzantine emperor. Heimskringla is silent as to his reasons for leaving Russia, but H. R. Ellis Davidson comments that "other versions of [Harald's] saga indicate that it was because of his desire to marry Yaroslav's daughter Ellisif," whom, Harald was informed, he would only be allowed to marry after he had proved himself with great deeds.[4]

Whatever his reasons, Harald arrived in Constantinople at the command of a "great host of men."[5] He quickly entered the service of Empress Zoë and her husband, Michael Katalaktes, and joined the navy. Apparently, Harald was much liked by the Varangians, Scandinavian mercenaries in the employ of Empire, and eventually, he became their leader. Though technically under the command of a Greek general named Gyrgir (Georgios Maniaces to the Greeks), Harald and his Varangians seems to have acted largely as an independent force, a fact that caused a good deal of tension between Harald and Gyrgir. Sturluson's assertion that Gyrgir was related to Empress Zoë seems to be inaccurate: Davidson comments that Georgios Maniaces was from Central Asia, and that Sturluson may have simply assumed that Maniaces was related to the empress simply because many generals were at the time.[6]

In one instance, Harald and Gyrgir had a dispute over whose troops would take the better camping land; when the men decided to settle the dispute by drawing lots, Harald cheated by marking his lot with the same mark as Gyrgir's; the first lot to be drawn out of the bag was to determine whether the Greeks or the Varangians would have first pick of camping land. With the lot was drawn, Harald threw it into the sea, proclaiming that the lot was his, and thus, he was the winner. Gyrgir was skeptical, but when Harald showed that the lot still in the bag bore Gyrgir's mark, the Greek was forced to give Harald first choice.[7] Still, Harald's insubordination must have been relatively minor; according to Davidson, "the Greek account of Harald's career indicates he acquitted himself well both in Sicily and Bulgaria and received promotion for his services."[8]

At some point, Harald and his army ventured into "Serkland," which, according to Sturluson, was in Africa. There, he took control of eighty cities[9]; however, Davidson suggests that Serkland was more likely in Asia Minor, "an excellent region for plunder."[10] Further, Davidson comments that "the number eighty...seems to be the traditional number for the capture of many cities."[11] Though typically discerning of his sources, Sturluson seems to have lapsed some in his description of the Serkland campaign: aside from the inaccuracies listed above, Sturluson goes on to tell anecdotes of how Harald sacked four cities through various forms of cleverness, including using birds with flaming brands lashed to their backs, and feigning death in order to gain access to a city.[12] These accounts are impossible to prove, and likely, are merely legends: Sturluson provides no indication for the locations of the cities in question or the times the battles took place, and the tactics employed have been attributed to several other prominent warriors of the time.[13]

After a visit to Jerusalem and conquests in Sicily, Harald returned to Constantinople, having earned the titles of Spatharokandidatos, which seems to have been equivalent to a colonel, and Manglavites, a title of honor. Unfortunately, in 1041, Michael IV Katalaktes, died, and was succeeded by his adopted son, Michael V. Michael V appears to have disliked the Varangians, and Harald was imprisoned on charges of misappropriating some of the spoils from his conquests. Michael V was unpopular, however, and when he exiled Empress Zoë, his citizens revolted in April, 1042. According to Davidson, this is likely when Harald made his escape from prison.[14]

Soon after Michael V was succeeded by Zoë's third husband, Constantine Monomachus, Harald sought to return to the North; his request to leave the service of the Empire was refused, but Harald left anyway, and returned to Russia to collect his wealth, much of which had previously been sent by trusted men for Yaroslav to safeguard for him. The amount appears to have been considerable; aside from his battle-spoils, Harald had participated three times in polutasvarf, a Byzantine custom in which the Varangians were allowed to enter the palace and cart off whatever riches they could carry. The polutasvarf was held every time an Emperor died, and Harald had been in Constantinople through the reigns on Romanos III, Michael IV, and Michael V.[15]

Upon his return, Harald was allowed to marry Ellisif; shortly after, he returned to his native Norway. In Harald's absence, the throne of Norway had been restored to Magnus the Good, bastard son of Olaf II. When Harald arrived, he felt his claim to the throne was stronger than Magnus', and the two almost went to arms. Magnus' advisors, however, recommended the young king not fight his uncle, and a compromise was formed: Harald would jointly rule with Magnus, and Harald would share half of his wealth with Magnus.[16]

Less than a year later, in 1467, Magnus was dead, and Harald became sole ruler of Norway. The circumstances of Magnus' death are questionable: Sturluson gives only a vague notion that Magnus "fell sick and took to his bed."[17] It is quite possible that Harald had him removed in order to consolidate his power. On his death, Magnus bequeathed rulership of Norway to Harald, and rulership of Denmark to Svein Ulfsson, the nephew of Canute the Great. Denmark had come under Magnus' control after the death of Harthecanute, Canute the Great's son.

Harald was not content to have Norway only, and desired the throne of Denmark for himself. Unfortunately, he found it difficult to garner support for a campaign against the Danes; an earl named Einar Thambarskelfir-a powerful man, "chief leader of the farmers in all the districts of Trondheim"[18]-opposed the campaign, and blocked many of Harald's efforts to advance his Denmark campaign. Before long, Harald had Einar killed, an act that was damaging to his image: according to Sturluson, he was "so strongly detested on account of his deed that the only reason the king's stewards and the farmers did not...do battle with him was the lack of a leader."[19]

After killing Einar, Harald embarked on several campaigns against Svein Ulfsson, none of which were successful or garnered much support. Karen Larsen comments that "there was no background for a union between the two countries and no demand for it among the people."[20] After fifteen years of fighting, Harald finally gave up on trying to conquer Denmark, and called Svein to a meeting for peace terms, in which both sides agreed to put aside their hostilities as long as the two kings lived.[21]

Harald's Denmark campaigns were unpopular at home, so much so that certain districts, most notably Uppsala in the north, began to withhold taxes to show their displeasure. Harald dealt with this problem much as he dealt with many of his other diplomatic adversities: he removed it with brutal force. Sturluson comments that he "had the farmers seized. Some he had maimed, others killed, and of many he confiscated all of their property."[22]

Harald maintained control of his nation through the use of his hird, a sort of private army maintained by Norwegian lords. In particular, Harald's contribution to the strength of Norway's monarchy was the enforcement of a policy that made it so only the king could retain a hird[23].

When it became apparent that Harald was not going to be able to conquer Denmark, he turned his sights instead on England. England had, in the early 1040s, belonged to Harthecanute, the son of Canute. Harald based a claim to the throne of England on an agreement supposedly made by Harthecanute and Magnus, which apparently said that if one of the two died, the other would inherit the deceased's throne and lands. When Harthecanute died, Magnus assumed rulership of Denmark, but neglected to press his claim on England, allowing Edward the Confessor to take the throne. The claim was shaky at best, and Harald likely wouldn't even have pursued it, except for the urgings of Tostig, brother of King Harold Godwinson of England. Tostig pledged his support to Harald, stating, "If you wish to gain possession of England, then I may bring it about that most of the chieftains in England will be on your side and support you."[24]

Sturluson comments that prior to embarking for England, Harald and many of his soldiers were plagued with foreboding dreams, but it is likely that the tales of this foreshadowing of the king's demise was added after the fact. Before embarking, Harald had his son Magnus declared King of Norway. His other son, Olaf, ventured to England with him. Harald took with him 300 boats of men and supplies.

In England, Harald's forces attacked the northern coast, eventually sacking the town of York, where he made camp at Stamford Bridge. This would be Harald's last battleground; Harold Godwinson marched his army north to meet Harald Hardrada and Tostig. At Stamford, Harold Godwinson offered his brother a third of his kingdom in exchange for a truce; Tostig replied by asking what Harold would give the Norwegian King. King Harold replied that he would give Harald Hardrada "seven feet of English soil, or more because they say he is a tall man."[25] Tostig refused his brother's terms, choosing instead to remain loyal to his ally.

Harald and his forces were greatly outnumbered; Harald had left a third of his troops on the ships, and many of those that went ashore had left their mail coats behind. After judging his odds, Harald formed his men into a defensive ring; he and Tostig each lead a small contingent of troops in the middle, which would rush to whichever parts of the ring seemed in danger of collapsing. This tactic worked well until Harald was struck in the throat by an arrow. The blow was fatal, and the battle lulled until Eystein Orri, one of Harald's lieutenants, arrived with reinforcements and took up the king's banner. Even when offered quarter, the Norwegians refused, saying they would rather die than accept English mercy.[26]

At the battle's end, the survivors of Harald's army could man only twenty-five of the three hundred ships they had arrived in. Harald's son Olaf returned to Norway and ruled together with his brother; almost immediately, Svein of Denmark renewed hostilities, asserting that the agreement between the Danes and the Norwegians was to last only until either Harald or Svein died. Harald's invasion of England likely had a profound effect on British history; Harold Godwinson's army was already exhausted by the time it fought William the Conquerer, having made a march north to engage in a fierce battle with the Norwegians, then to turn around and make a panicked march back south, almost without rest, to meet the Norman invaders. If Harold Godwinson's army had been in better condition, it might have overcome William's army, changing the course of British history forever.

[1] Sturluson, Snorri. Heimskringla, trans. Lee M. Hollander (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1967), 314-315.

[2] Ibid, 501.

[3] Ibid, 578.

[4] Davidson, H. R. Ellis, The Viking Road to Byzantium (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1976), 210.

[5] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 578.

[6] Davidson, The Viking Road to Byzantium, 211.

[7] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 580.

[8] Davidson, The Viking Road to Byzantium, 213.

[9] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 581.

[10] Davidson, The Viking Road to Byzantium, 219.

[11] Ibid, 219.

[12] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 582-585.

[13] Davidson, The Viking Road to Byzantium, 213-218.

[14] Ibid, 224.

[15] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 590.

[16] Ibid, 593-596.

[17] Ibid, 599.

[18] Ibid, 610.

[19] Ibid, 612.

[20] Larsen, Karen. A History of Norway (New York: Princeton University Press, 1948.), 113.

[21] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 635-636.

[22] Ibid, 639.

[23] Popperwell, Ronald G. Norway, (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972), 79.

[24] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 644.

[25] Sturluson, Heimskringla, 653.

[26] Ibid, 656.