History of Edible Flowers

Author's note: This article contains an overview on the history and uses of edible flowers. Please see my other AC article on this topic titled Floral Themed Brunch for a variety of recipes which feature edible flowers.

"In a fifteenth century book of recipes in a list of herbs considered necessary for the garden are borage flowers, daisies, violets to be used in soup, violets for sauce and gilly flowers for drinks."

RosettaE. Clarkson, Green Enchantment, 1940

A Brief Survey of the History of Eating Flowers

The history of edible flowers can be traced back thousands of years. For instance, capers (Capparis spinosa) are the flower buds of a Mediterranean evergreen shrub and have been used as a condiment for over 2,000 years in Europe. Dandelions were one of the bitter herbs referred to in the Old Testament of the bible. Edible flowers such as daylilies and chrysanthemums have been used by the Chinese and Greeks for centuries.

The use of edible flowers was carried on by the Romans who used mallows, roses, and violets in a myriad of dishes. The English would have been exposed to the uses of edible flowers such as borage and roses through their contact with the Romans.

Anglo-Norman cuisine of the 13th and 14th centuries utilized a variety of edible flowers such as roses, hawthorn blossoms and elder flowers. Hugh Platt's 1602 book Delights for Ladies includes recipes for candying flowers. Violets, cowslips, pinks, roses, and marigolds were used as natural food colorings during the Renaissance. The Portuguese first used the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) in the 1700's as a substitute for the more expensive saffron.

Saffron comes from the dried stigmas of the crocus flower (Crocus sativus) and is very expensive to produce. Each crocus flower contains only three stigmas and it takes approximately 4000 flowers to make one ounce of saffron. The Europeans would have continued to use edible flowers after colonizing the new world.

Edible flowers were very popular during the Victorian era (~1837-1890) especially as part of salads. The Victorians added a variety of items to their salads including violets, borage, primroses, gilly flowers (clove pinks) and nasturtiums. Many of these flowers could also be pickled to be stored for use during the winter months when fresh flowers were not available. They also candied violets and other flowers to garnish baked goods such as wedding cakes.

There has been a resurgence within the past 15 years or so to once again utilize edible flowers in home prepared meals. This renewal of flower cookery concurs with the organic health food movement. Americans have a renewed interest in eating and even growing their own fresh produce in lieu of consuming so much nutritionally inferior fast foods and using only commercially produced ingredients. Upscale restaurants and home cooks are using a plethora of edible flowers in their food and beverage creations. Magazines such as Country Living and Gourmet have featured edible flower recipes in recent articles.

Flowers can be tricky to work with. The delicate flowers and flower petals can quickly wilt or become mushy if they are cooked too long or drowned in heavy sauce or dressing. Many recipes call for the flowers to be added towards the end of the recipe or just prior to serving your meal.

Historical Colonial Uses of Edible Flowers
American colonists arriving from Europe brought with them the seeds of a variety of plants to grow in their gardens upon arrival in the new world. Among the seeds were a number of edible flowers including pot marigold and dandelions. Some historic colonial uses of edible flowers included:

candied flowers
dandelion flower jelly
dandelion flower wine
salads
rose jelly
syrup of roses
syrup of violets

Native American Uses of Edible Flowers
Native Americans have used a variety of flowers in their cooking throughout the years. American colonists would have been exposed to the uses of these plants and their flowers through their contacts with the Native Americans. Some examples include:

cattails (Typha latifolia)
century plant (Agave americana)
Oswego tea AKA bee balm (Monarda didyma)
red clover (Trifolium pratense)
squash blossoms (Cucurbita spp.)
yucca (Yucca spp.)

Modern-Day Uses of Edible Flowers
You probably have already consumed a number of edible flowers without even realizing it. When you consume broccoli you are eating the unopened flower buds of the plant. Artichoke lovers are eating the unopened flower bud of the plant Cynara scolymus while the flower receptacles of Carolina thistle (Calina acaulis) can be used as a substitute for artichoke hearts.

Cloves (Syzgium aromaticum) are the dried, unopened flower buds of an evergreen tree. Saffron (Crocus sativus is used to impart a regal color and subtle flavor to rice and other dishes. Do not confuse the edible saffron crocus with the poisonous autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale). The flower petals of pot marigold (Calendula officinalis) can be utilized as an inexpensive saffron substitute.

This article will inform the budding chef and herb enthusiast about some of the more interesting flowers and flower petals that can be safely used for consumption.

Types of Edible Flowers
"How many flowers there are which only serve to produce essences, which could have been made into savory dishes."

Charles Pierre Monselet, French author (1825-1888)

Most culinary herbs produce edible flowers. They usually taste like a milder version of the herb (i.e. rosemary flowers have a lighter tasting herb flavor than do the leaves). Some of the more palatable herbs with edible flowers include:

basil (Ocimum spp.)
borage (Borago officinalis)
chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium)
cilantro (Coriandrum sativum)
common chives (Allium schoenoprasum)
dandelion (Taraxacum officinalis)
dill (Anethum graveolens)
English lavender (Lavendula angustifolia)
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
garlic chives (Allium tuberosum)
hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis)
lovage (Levisticum officinale)
lemon verbena (Aloysia triphylla)
marjoram (Origanum majorana)
Mexican tarragon (Tagetes lucida)
mint (Mentha spp.)
oregano (Origanum vulgare)
rosemary (Rosmarinus spp.)
common sage (Salvia officinalis)
society garlic (Tulbaghia violacea)
summer savory (Satureja hortensis)
thyme (Thymus spp.)
winter savory (Satureja montana)

Many vegetables and fruits also produce edible flowers. When you harvest the flower of many of these fruits and vegetables you will sacrifice the blossom which would have turned into the fruit or vegetable. In some cases the plant would have produced more fruits/vegetables than you could normally use so sacrificing a few flowers shouldn't adversely affect your harvest. Here are some examples of fruits and vegetables which have edible flowers:

arugula (Eruca vesicaria sativa)
chicory (Cichorium intybus)
garden peas (Pisum spp.)
lemon flowers (Citrus limon)
mustard (Brassica spp.)
okra (Abelmoschus aesculentus)
orange flowers (Citrus sinensis)
pineapple guava (Feijoa sellowiana)
radish (Raphanus sativus)
runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus)
squash blossoms (Curcubita spp.)
strawberry (Fragaria ananassa)

Many ornamental flowers are also edible. Here is a brief listing of those specimens which are safe to consume.

bee balm (Monarda didyma)
garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium)
cowslips (Primula veris)
day lilies (Hemerocallis spp.)
English daisy (Bellis perennis)
evening primrose (Oenothera biennis)
fuchsia (Fuchsia arborescens)
gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides)
hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
hollyhock (Alcea rosea)
jasmine (Jasminum sambac)
Johnny Jump-Ups (Viola tricolor)
lilac (Syringa vulgaris)
mallows (Malva spp.)
moss rose (Portulaca grandiflora)
nasturtium (Trapaeolum majus)
pansy (Viola wittrockiana)
pot marigold (Calendula officinalis)
redbud (Cercis canadensis)
rose (Rosa spp.)
signet marigold (Tagetes signata)
sweet violets (Viola odorata)

Safety Precautions
Make sure you know what you are eating. Do not begin to use flowers in your cooking unless you are positive of their identification. Consult a good reference book for a comprehensive list of edible flowers. Day lilies (Hemerocallis species) are edible, all other lilies (Asiatic, Oriental) are not. The flowers from garden peas are edible; however, sweet pea flowers (Lathyrus spp.) are not edible. Tuberous begonia flowers are edible; however, wax begonia flowers (Begonia semperflorens) are not safe to consume.

Moderation is key. Something as mild as lettuce can cause you to have an upset stomach if eaten in abnormally large quantities. If you are interested in incorporating edible flowers into your cuisine start off with small amounts to see how your body handles them.

Perform a taste test. Even if a flower is edible and your digestion can handle them without any problems, you may not like the taste of certain flowers. Taste a few before adding them to any of your recipes to be certain you will enjoy the flavor.

Avoid harvesting edible flowers from the side of the road where they may be contaminated from harmful car and truck exhausts.

Do not harvest flowers in the wild unless you have permission from the land owner and are absolutely certain of their identification.

Certain flowers in the composite family (chamomile, chrysanthemum, daisies, sunflowers) should be avoided by people with asthma, allergies and hayfever problems. The presence of large amounts of pollen on these types of flowers may produce an allergic reaction in sensitive individuals.

The following edible flower varieties should be approached with caution. I probably wouldn't eat them myself since it is not 100% certain that they are safe to consume. There are so many other safe choices when choosing edible flowers, why take chances?

Apple blossoms (Pyrus malus) - may contain cyanide precursors.
Bachelor buttons (Centurea cyanus) - some references say they are edible while others say that they are not.
Linden (Tilia spp.) - frequent consumption of linden flower tea may cause heart damage.
Snapdragons (Antirrhinum majus) - as with bachelor buttons, some references claim they are safe to eat while others say that they are not.
Sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum) - may have a blood thinning effect if eaten in large quantities.
Tulips (Tulipa spp.) - may cause certain people to develop a rash or upset stomach.

Obtaining Edible Flowers
Flowers obtained from nursery and garden centers and florists are probably not safe to eat. The flowers you use must be free from any harmful chemicals such as are found in many commercially applied pesticides and fertilizers. You should only use organically grown flowers.

You could check out your local health food store and farmer's market to see if they offer edible flowers for sale. Flowers intended for consumption should only be purchased from businesses that label their produce as being organic and free of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Your other option would be to grow your own organically raised flowers or get them from a friend who has an organic garden.

Preparing and Storage
As a general rule, you should use only the flower petals of edible flowers. Certain flowers such as violets, pansies and Johnny jump-ups however can be consumed whole, just be certain to remove the green sepal from the base of the flower before using.

Pick flowers early in the morning after the dew has dried on them or in the early evening. Flowers that are picked during the heat of midday will quickly wilt or dry out before you have a chance to use them.

Remove the pistils and stamens from the flowers if present and also gently remove any residual pollen with a small, soft brush. Some flowers such as chrysanthemums, daisies, marigolds, clove pinks and roses have a bitter white heel that is present at the base of each petal. Remove this heel prior to adding these types of flowers to your culinary creations.

Gently wash the flowers if any dirt or bugs are present. Carefully pat the flowers dry with a paper towel or use a salad spinner to remove any excess water.

The harvested and cleaned flowers should be used immediately or stored in one of two ways. Place the flowers in a plastic bag or other air-tight plastic container, along with one or two moist paper towels and store them in the vegetable bin of your refrigerator. Flowers with longer stems can be placed in a vase of water, which can then be placed inside of your refrigerator until needed.

Edible Flower Uses in Ethnic Cooking
Many Hispanic culinary creations utilize hibiscus flowers, linden flowers, coral-tree flowers and squash blossoms as staple ingredients. These flowers are used in a variety of dishes such as squash blossom soup and hibiscus flower water. Canned squash blossoms are even available from several Mexican food distributors. Squash blossoms are also chopped, sautéed, and served in tortillas.

Garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium) AKA shungiku is a traditional Oriental chop suey green with dainty orange-yellow flowers. The flowers have bright yellow petals which have a flavor similar to the leaves (spicy and aromatic). The petals can be sprinkled on top of salads, rice dishes, and stir fries prior to serving.

Dried daylily flowers (AKA golden needles) are used in Chinese Hot & Sour soup. The fresh petals and flower buds are used in stir fries in Asian-style cuisine. They have a fresh taste similar to asparagus or green beans. The flowers of gardenia (Gardenia augusta) are used to flavor Chinese tea.

In Scotland the dried flower heads of heather (Calluna vulgaris) are mixed with other herbs such as blackberry leaves, wild thyme, and wild strawberry leaves and brewed to create "Moorland tea".

The flowers of mock lime (Aglaia odorata) AKA Chinese perfume plant are used to scent Chinese tea. The flowers have a pleasant vanilla scent when they are dried.

The flowers of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) and its leaves are used in India to make a tasty tea. The flowers, which have a sweet jasmine-like scent, are also utilized in chutney and other recipes.

Rose water, which is made from rose petals, is a popular flavoring in Indian, Middle Eastern, and Chinese cooking. Turkish Delight is a Persian confection which includes rose water as one of its ingredients.

The flowers and leaves of wasabi (Wasabia japonica) are used to make wasabi-zuke which is a type of Japanese pickle.

Water lily (Nymphaea odorata) flower buds are very fragrant and are used in Oriental cooking either pickled or cooked as a vegetable.

The flower buds of the wax gourd (Benincasa hispida) are used in Chinese cooking either steamed or stir-fried.

Winged beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), also known as gao beans, have been cultivated in Asia and India for centuries. The flowers are edible and can be used in a variety of dishes.

Grow Your Own Edible Flowers
Here is a brief listing of garden catalogs that sell certified organic plants and/or seeds should you be interested in growing your own edible flowers.

The Natural Gardening Company
PO Box 750776
Petaluma, CA 94975-0776
1-707-766-9303
Info@naturalgardening.com
www.naturalgardening.com

Ritcher's Herbs
357 HWY 47
Goodwood, Ontario LOC 1AO
CANADA
1-905-640-6677
orderdesk@ritchers.com
www.richters.com

Seeds of Change
PO Box 15700
Santa Fe, NM 87592-1500
1-888-762-7333
www.seedsofchange.com

Sow Organic Seed
PO Box 527
Williams, OR 97544
1-888-709-7333
Organic@organicseed.com
www.organicseed.com

Territorial Seed Company
PO Box 158
Cottage Grove, OR 97424-0061
1-888-657-3131
Tertrl@territorial-seed.com
www.territorial-seed.com

Internet Sources
The following companies offer fresh or dried edible flowers, flower petals and floral based condiments for sale which are all ready to add to your own culinary creations. This is a great way to incorporate edible flowers into your diet if you don't have the room or time to grow them yourself.

Fresh Origins
1575-B Mulberry DR
San Marcos, CA 92069
1-760-736-4072
david.freshorigins@earthlink.net
www.freshorigins.com

Earthy Delights
1161 E. Clark Road, Suite 260
DeWitt, Michigan 48820
1-800-367-4709
info@earthy.com
www.earthy.com

Further Reading

Bown, Deni. The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses. New York, NY: Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2001.

Brown, Kathy. The Edible Flower Garden. Lanham, MD: Lorenz Books, 1999.

Creasy, Rosalind. The Edible Flower Garden. Boston, MA: Periplus Editions, 2000.

McGee, Rose Marie Nichols. McGee & Stuckey's The Bountiful Container. New York, NY: Workman Publishing, 2002.

Smythe, Lynn. "Edible Flowers." Back Home Magazine, May/June 2005, pages 29-31.

Smythe, Lynn. "The Story of the Edible Herbal Flower." Llewellyn's 2004 Herbal Almanac. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Worldwide, pages 83-100.

Tenebaum, Frances (ed.). Taylor's 50 Best Herbs and Edible Flowers. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999.

Wilkinson Barash, Cathy. Edible Flowers; From Garden to Palate. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1993.