History: The War of 1812

The War of 1812 was mainly between the United States and Great Britain. The "relatively small conflict" (Heidler & Heidler, 2002, p.1) lasted for almost three years-from June of 1812 to Spring of 1815. The war still continued for a few months after a peace treaty ending the war was signed in Europe in December of 1814.

The war was mainly borne from the heated conflict between European superpowers Great Britain and France "pursued war policies that threatened the economic policies of the United States" (Heidler & Heidler, 2002, p.1).

Initially, the United States sought to fight policy with policy through economics. They have passed the Embargo Act outlawing American ships to perform foreign trade functions. Through this made relatively no effect on the French-British policies, it however had destructive effects on the shipping industries especially in New England.

Some literature point to an underlying reason for going to war is the belief (during the War of Independence) that the United States would take over Canada in the future. The British government sent orders urging the deportation of their citizens from Canada during this time. At this time, a group of Democratic-Republicans known as War Hawks thought that an attack on Canada may help save the Americans' honor and alter British foreign trade protocols. (Horsman, 1962)

Some other specific reasons for the declaration of war are the inability of Great Britain to extract their control over American land especially along the Great Lakes. The British have also expressed great support for the Indians on American frontiers. Some state that the war may be brought about the American's irritation with Britain's refusal to sign commercial settlements advantageous to the United States. The declaration of war was promulgated on June 18, 2008 under President James Maddison with substantial opposition from the Congress.

The reason for this declaration is Great Britain's actions characteristic of "acts, hostile to the United States as an independent and neutral nation" (Taylor, 1963). Unbeknown to the United States, both Great Britain and France had revoked their orders days before the United State's declaration. Perhaps the American government took advantage of the fact the Britain is currently at war with France in the Napoleonic Wars of 1803 to 1815.
Some of the more notable events that transpired during this war were the following (1) the failure of the United States to conquer Canada; (2) the Americans' relative success in their naval defenses against the British; (3) the entry of the British in the United States fresh from their victory against Napoleon; (4) destruction of the British fleet by a relatively weak American force headed by Capt. Thomas McDonough causing the British to retreat to Canada; (5) the Treaty of Ghent was signed; and (5) the Battle of New Orleans.

The Doomed Conquest of Canada

The Americans had a three-pronged strategy-to enter Canada via three routes (1) across the Niagara border, (2) from Lake Champlain to Montreal, and (3) from Detroit to Upper Canada. The ambitious dreams of the War Hawk were dashed due to poor execution and lack of coordination. Eventually the Americans disgracefully retreated in late November.
Another attempt to seize Canada in 1813 was unsuccessful again by the end of the year. The Americans were only successful with gaining the western part of Canada via the Detroit boundary.

Triumphant American Naval Armada

The Americans were successful in defeating the British on single-ship combats. The victory of the Constitution (headed my Isaac Hull) and the capture of the Macedonian are two notable accomplishments in 1812. However in 1813, the Chesapeake reached the British shores only to be easily defeated by the British.
British on American Soil

After the British troops defeated Napoleon, they concentrated their efforts to the American war. Large numbers of skilled and experienced troops and ships were sent to America. The plan was to attack the United States on three different entry points: (1) along Lake Champlain and Hudson River in New York-so that they can cut New England from the United States; (2) in New Orleans-in order to block the Mississippi; and (3) in Chesapeake Bay-as a diversionary tactic.
The calculated attack on New York to block New England from joining the Union seemed to have succeeded as New England opponents started to voice out their desire to separate from the Union.

The attack on Chesapeake Bay also proved to be strategic. A handful of British troops, fresh from their triumph in Bladensburg went to Washington D.C. They burned almost all the public buildings. The President of the United States had to run off and hide. The British troops then pursued Baltimore. The American resistance here was stronger and had caused the British to retire.
British Retreat to Canada

On September 11, 1814, the flotilla headed by Capt. Thomas McDonough triumphed in the naval battle of Lake Champlain. They were able to obliterate the British fleet.
In the fear of losing communication with their comrades, the British army fled to Canada.

The Treaty of Ghent

In the middle of 1914, the British started peace negotiations with the Americans in Ghent. This was the beginning of long and painstaking discussions between the two nations. A treaty was signed on December 24, 1814, now known as the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty called for an end to the violence and hostilities, the relinquishing of captured properties and territories, and the creation of boundary commissions.
It is noticeable that none of the original reasons for the disputes were laid to rest. It is also unclear from these proceedings which country actually won or benefited more from the war.

The Battle of New Orleans

While the treaty was already signed, the American and British troops had no idea that the war was technically over. Still they pursued their missions.
The British forces were able to assemble around 50 ships and 10,000 troops from Jamaica. Sir Edward Pakenham was their leader.
On the other side, Major General Andrew Jackson known as "Old Hickory," was also preparing for battle. They were outnumbered but they were knowledgeable of the terrain.

The British troops advanced and scattered a few members of the American fleet along the way. They decided to attack through Bayou Bienvenue, which has access to the eastern bank of the Mississippi River. They toddled on to the marshes and reached their destination without combat.
However two American officers knew of their presence and reported to Major General Johnson. The American troops launched an unexpected nighttime attack on the British armada. Though the British were shaken by the American's gall, they were still able to defend themselves. The battle was technically a draw but it bought the Americans some lead time to plan their next move.

With the extra time and knowledge of the terrain, Major General Jackson was able to build a fortified mud rampart flanked by the Mississippi River on its right and an impossibly thick cypress swamp on its left.

This rampart stood its ground against the freshly arrived troops and the artillery despite their obvious lack of manpower.
General Pakenham had a new plan in which they take advantage of the morning fog and attack the rampart carrying improvised ladders to penetrate it. However the execution of the plan was disastrous on January 8. Some of the forces were delayed and didn't arrive at dawn. With the lack of the fog as a cover, they were visible to the Americans. Moreover the British forgot some of their makeshift weapons and ladders.

Perhaps due to luck, the 4000 American solders-crammed in their narrow hiding place were able to face troops more than twice their numbers. The British were easy targets. They were able to kill and wound more than 2000 British troops, a few hundred were captured as prisoners, and even General Pakenham was killed. His successor followed his dying wishes and tried to remove as many survivors as he could. Only eight Americans were killed while thirteen were injured.

No other battle can compare to this one where wits won over number and artillery. But Major General Johnson and his troop's success was futile-the war has been ended months ago in the Treaty of Ghent. Thousands of British troops died for a war that was already over.

Beirne considers that War of 1912 to be "full of absurdities" (1949, p.387). The war was absurd because of the following reasons: (1) one of the reasons for the dispute, the orders in council were actually withdrawn prior to the declaration of war and yet it still persisted; (2) the issue of impressments, the other reason for the dispute was not included in the peace treaty; (3) that the president of the United States was driven out of Washington by a small number of British soldiers; and (4) due to the British Isles, a few American privateers have terrorized commerce in the narrow seas (1949, p.387).These absurdities may be the reason why the public school system may hesitate to go into details about this war. The American Civil War with the heroic figures it had produced has drastically surpassed this war. But if anything, this war gave the Americans a glimpse of what was to come in World War I and II.

However, Beirne still finds merit on the war and considers it on the whole as "a war conducted on humane principles." The destructions resulting from the war were apologized for. The American government expressed great disapproval of the destruction of Newark in Canada. They admitted that it was totally "uncalled for and unnecessary" (Bierne, 1949, p. 391) which caused affliction on Canadian civilians.

Though the peace stipulated going back to normal, it was indicative that nobody was actually victorious. Fortunately, neither party seems eager to finally settle the issues-commissions were set up to settle the disputes (Bierne, 1949, p.391). A positive thing that did come up after the war is the realization of the British government that the American troops were not as ill-equipped and ill-experienced as they thought. The British finally treated the United States as a nation rather than as a colony. Though there are existing discords between these two nations, the Ghent treaty still reigns until now. Likewise the relationship between Canada and the United States has improved. There is no fear of renewed aggression and invasion.

References

Beirne, F. F. (1949). The War of 1812 (1st ed.). New York: E.P. Dutton.
Heidler, D. S., & Heidler, J. T. (2002). The War of 1812. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Horsman, R. (1962). The Causes of the War of 1812. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Taylor, G. R. (Ed.). (1963). The War of 1812: Past Justifications and Present Interpretations. Boston: D. C. Heath.