How Baseball Influenced Integration in the United States

Mark Twain once stated, "Baseball is the very symbol, the outward and visible experience of the drive and rush and struggle on the raging, tearing, booming nineteenth century".[1] This prophetic statement would remain true during the twentieth century as well. The fall of the black Negro Leagues in baseball in the late 1940s influenced the fall of the Brown v. Board of Education case that took place during the Civil Rights Movement in 1955. Plessy v. Ferguson, which took place in 1896,stated that "separate-but-equal" facilities for blacks and whites did not violate the Constitution.[2] Because of the decision and Jim Crow Laws, which created segregation laws, African Americans were denied access to many public facilities, such as restaurants, schools, and hospitals. This denial of access to public places was also taking place in baseball.

In 1884, the Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association tried to incorporate two African American brothers into their games. Discrimination from players and fans alike forced the Blue Stockings to drop the brothers. This experiment wouldn't be tried again until the 1950s.[3] After that experiment, there was an "unwritten rule" banning blacks from baseball. Plessy v. Ferguson was finally overturned in 1955 when Rosa Parks was convicted for violating a Montgomery, Alabama law allowing segregated seats on buses. When she refused to move from the "white seats", the case was taken to the Supreme Court. They ruled that the Plessy v. Ferguson case no longer applied.[4] Major League baseball integrated the Negro Leagues for many reasons. At that time, the Negro Leagues became very popular and started to become successful businesses.

White baseball was also eager to incorporate the many talented players in the Negro Leagues to try to make their team better. Also, the successful integrations of a few "experimental" black players in the Major Leagues gave owners the idea to integrate completely. Finally, when blacks joined the Major Leagues, there was a huge increase in ticket sales.[5] At this time, many blacks realized that the Negro Leagues and Major Leagues weren't "separate-but-equal" as stated in the Plessy v. Ferguson. The majority of the Negro League fans abandoned the Negro Leagues to watch their favorite players excel in the Major Leagues against whites. Shortly after the integration of baseball, total integration occurred in the United States. The decision by the Supreme Court to overturn Plessy v. Ferguson greatly influenced total integration in the United States.

There were many reasons for racial integration in Major League Baseball. One reason was the success of Negro Leagues and other minority leagues. Black baseball began with independent black teams. Some of these independent teams, such as the Cuban X Giants and the Chicago American Giants, would travel around the country to play other black teams and even some Major League teams after their season had ended.[6] Andrew "Rube" Foster, the main figure in black baseball at that time, decided to organize his own baseball league. The league he created would become the Negro National League. Other black leagues, such as the Negro American League, were also created at this time.[7] The Negro Leagues provided blacks a rare opportunity to make some money playing baseball.

As time went on, Negro Leagues became increasingly popular. They were often outselling Major League games before they were integrated. The Negro Leagues and their affiliates formed the largest black owned business in America.[8] The Leagues offered employment to thousands of blacks around the country. The leagues were the focal point for much of the black community, such as the emerging black middle class. The Negro Leagues also had some innovations before white baseball had them. For example, the Negro Leagues played night games under lights before the Major Leagues did.[9] When the Negro Leagues were the most successful, the entire United States was separated most by the Plessy v. Ferguson case. At this time, the idea of a black player in baseball was absurd, the discrimination and racism was too much for a player to handle. Many even feared for the safety of the players if integration occurred. However, the success of the Negro Leagues wasn't the only reason for future integration.

The Negro Leagues had many talented players. They were often seen as a talent pool for Major League Baseball. Some owners, such as Branch Rickey, instituted farm systems to prepare players for the big leagues. He used this strategy to transform the St. Louis Cardinals into one of baseball's best teams. Black players were a major part of this transformation.[10] Rickey saw blacks as an easy way to produce a successful team on the field. There were a few in particular players that were especially good. They included Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson, Hank Aaron, and Jackie Robinson. Satchel Paige started his long, successful career with the Mobile Tigers in 1924. In 1934, Paige won 104 of the 105 games he started. In 1948, he was finally signed to the Major Leagues. He was the oldest rookie to ever play in Major League Baseball. Josh Gibson was another elite player in the Negro Leagues. Josh Gibson was a power hitter that played mainly for the Homestead Grays of the Negro Leagues. He is the only player to ever hit a fair ball out of Yankee Stadium. Sadly, Gibson died just months before integration into baseball.[11]

Baseball was also completely integrated because of the increase of ticket sales caused by black stars entering the Major Leagues. During World War II, many white stars of baseball joined the army, such as Joe DiMaggio. There was, therefore, a demographic transformation in many cities that brought hundreds of thousands of pool blacks from the South to the North to look for new jobs and opportunities.[12] While their favorite stars were in Europe on the battlefield, fans went to Negro League games instead. The Negro League games became incredibly popular and were played in the ballparks of Major League Baseball teams. Games often drew up to 50,000 fans. Some of the players received a lot of attention at this time. Satchel Paige once stated, "The only change is that baseball has turned Paige from a second class citizen to a second class immortal".[13] The black players' new popularity carried over to the Major Leagues after integration. The first weekend game with Jackie Robinson produced by far the largest crowds in Brooklyn Dodger's history. The Major Leagues now had a large black and minority fan base. After integration the Negro Leagues died out. It is said that they were the true victims of baseball's integration. Most of the black fan base went to Major League games to cheer on the black stars and abandoned the Negro Leagues. Only a few black players would make into the Major Leagues, many were left without a job. Major League Baseball would later give Negro League players pensions and medical benefits because of their struggles.[14] As the Negro Leagues began to diminish, blacks began to fight against segregation. The end of the Negro Leagues can be seen as the end of the "separate-but-equal" era in baseball. The end of the "separate-but-equal" era in baseball is likely to have influenced the end of that era in America as a whole.

Baseball was also used as an experiment to end segregation. In 1947, Brach Rickey signed Negro Leaguer Jackie Robinson to his team. Rickey was the General Manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers.[15] The Dodgers were already a highly successful team that was looking to capture the World Series. He felt Robinson would be an asset to the team and would receive exposure playing for a contending team.

Jackie Robinson was born on January 31, 1919 in Cairo, Georgia. Rickey though he would be a good player to break the color barrier because of his past experience with whites. He felt he was talented, smart, and had enough experience with whites to succeed. His father was a sharecropper and he grew up in an integrated neighborhood in Los Angeles. In June, 1944, Jackie refused to move to the black section of the bus and was court-martialed for insubordination. During World War II, Jackie fought in a segregated black combat unit. He was later acquitted and received an honorable discharge.[16]

He experienced many hardships when he first entered the league. Ben Chapman, the manager of the Philadelphia Phillies at the time, was particularly brutal. He ordered his players to discriminate against Robinson to try and bother him. Chapman mentioned everything from think lips to the "extra thick Negro skull". Chapman also warned Robinson's teammates that they would become infected with repulsive sores and diseases if they touched his combs or towels.[17] Robinson fought hard to contain himself through the hardships. Referring to the ordeal with Chapman, Robinson stated, "I was tempted to stride over to that Phillies dugout, grab one of those white sons of bitches and smash his teeth with my despised black fist".[18] Robinson eventually fought through the discrimination and was widely respected. He won numerous awards throughout his career. In 1947, he won the Rookie of the Year despite the racism he endured. He also won the Most Valuable Player award in 1949.[19]

Another player to be integrated into baseball was Henry "Hank" Aaron. Hank Aaron was born February 5, 1934, in Mobile, Alabama.[20] He debuted into the Major Leagues in 1954 for the Milwaukee Braves. He holds the career record for home runs. He is one of the most recognized and prestigious players in Major League Baseball. He was still discriminated against by fans and players, despite his talent. While chasing the home run record he was constantly ridiculed by fans. They would often send him hate mail and death threats. His secretary usually went through over 3,000 letters a day.[21] It got so bad that he had to get a police force to escort him in public. He often tried to dismiss the threats, however it wasn't easy for him. Aaron stated, "I tried not to take the threats on my own life too seriously, but they were always in the back on my mind". Even his own fans in Atlanta seemed to have wanted him to fail. As he got closer to the home run record, the attendance in Atlanta dwindled. Thankfully, as news about the hate mail spread Aaron started getting more mail to encourage him to fight through the hardships. Once he broke the record he was nationally respected. He was even offered to appear in television shows, such as the soap opera, Days of Our Lives.[22]

The events that occurred during the Civil Rights Movement were obviously influenced by the integration of baseball. By the time total integration in the United States occurred, baseball was already completely integrated. In 1955, when the Plessy v. Ferguson case was finally overturned there were many players already established in Major League Baseball. After baseball's integration, the Brown v. Board of Education case granted millions of black children the right to go to desegregated schools.[23] The Montgomery Bus Boycott also occurred around this time. Inspired by Rosa Parks, blacks refused to ride the Montgomery buses for over an entire year. They carpooled to got to places instead of taking the segregated buses.[24] Martin Luther King Jr. was also inspiring millions to fight segregation. He was inspiring whites, not only blacks. Many of these white were probably less racist because of the popularity of black stars in baseball. All of these advancements in the Civil Rights Movement were made easier by increased support of whites who had been influenced by the successful integration of baseball. The rise and the fall of the Negro Leagues parallels the rise and fall of the Plessy v. Ferguson case. As soon as the court made its decision to segregate blacks and whites in America, blacks started making their own baseball teams. When the Negro Leagues were most popular and successful among blacks, segregation was at its height. As soon as integration in baseball occurred, and America saw the official end of segregation shortly thereafter, the Negro Leagues dwindled down to nothing. Blacks abandoned the segregated league and cheered for their favorite stars as they competed against the famous white baseball players of the time, such as Joe DiMaggio and Mickey Mantle. All in all, the Negro Leagues were a sad example of the hardships of the Plessy v. Ferguson decision. After integration, thousands of blacks were left without a job because of the disbandment of the Negro Leagues. When whites realized how much more exciting Major League Baseball was with the new, talented black players, they questioned whether blacks can be integrated into other facets of everyday American life. Americans slowly began to realize the hardships that the African-Americans had to go through since 1896. In conclusion, Americans needed something to open their eyes to the horror of segregation; this was seen in the Negro Leagues. Americans also needed to believe total integration in America was possible; the successful integration of baseball made the decision for total integration much easier for many former doubters.

[1] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[2] Gerald Danzer et al., The Americans. (Evanston, Ill.: McDougal Littell Inc.), 496.

[3] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[4] Gerald Danzer et al., The Americans. (Evanston, Ill.: McDougal Littell Inc.), 497.

[5] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[6] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[7] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[8] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[9] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[10] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[11] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Toda, Sep.2003, 20.

[12] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Today, Sep.2003, 20.

[13]Patrick Howard. "Satchel Paige: The Official Web Site" N.d.,

http://www.cmgww.com/baseball/paige/index.html> (1 May 2005).

[14] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Today, Sep.2003, 20.

[15] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Today, Sep.2003, 20.

[16] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Today, Sep.2003, 20.

[17] Tygiel, Jules. Baseball's Great Experiment. New York: Oxford
UP, 1997. 182.

[18] Tygiel, Jules. Baseball's Great Experiment. New York: Oxford
UP, 1997. 184.

[19] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Today, Sep.2003, 20.

[20] Rubinstein, William D. " JACKIE ROBINSON AND THE INTEGRATION OF MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL." History Today, Sep.2003, 20.

[21] Aaron, Hank . I Had A Hammer: The Hank Aaron Story. New York:
HarperCollins, 1991. 321.

[22] Aaron, Hank . I Had A Hammer: The Hank Aaron Story. New York:
HarperCollins, 1991. 344.

[23] Gerald Danzer et al., The Americans. (Evanston, Ill.: McDougal Littell Inc.), 908.

[24] Gerald Danzer et al., The Americans. (Evanston, Ill.: McDougal Littell Inc.), 910.