How Career Development Impacts People's Lives

Career development is such an important aspect of life. Over the years, an abundance of research has been conducted to explain the significance of career development. Since we are always growing and changing, it is important to know how our decisions affect our career choices. From the time we enter this world until we die, we will experience changes. Circumstances and unplanned events will force us to make informed decisions about our career choices. As we age, individuals have the opportunity to reestablish themselves based on their personal choices. Everyone has choices to make, and as a result, our personal choices will have impacts on our career choices. This content will examine the importance of career development throughout life. I will discuss the history and significance of career development, and I will address the importance of career counseling. In addition, I will discuss some important theorists and theories related to career development.

Introduction

The term career development, describes both the constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and change factors that combine to shape individual career behavior over the life span (Borgen, 1997). Career development also refers to the interventions or practices that are used to enable a person to make more effective career decisions (Borgen, 1997). According to Betz (2006), career development involves the person's creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, values, expression, and life-role self-concepts.

We are constantly growing and making changes in life. As a result, career development is a process occurring from birth until death. Throughout the life span, there are many factors that may contribute to one's career choices in life. These factors can fall into several categories including: environmental, personal, family, financial, economical and health related issues.

During childhood, individuals begin to identify skills, interests, likes and dislikes at an early age. Pre-teens and teenagers begin preparing for their future by taking college prep courses in school, and participating in educational and extracurricular enrichment programs. Throughout adulthood many people change careers, return to school, and/or re-locate to another area based on career choices. Senior citizens must make important decisions in regards to retiring or returning to the workforce. One can see why career development occurs over the life span. It is a never-ending process.

Career development involves being aware of one's personal goals, values and work goals. It involves continuously learning and applying new knowledge, taking advantage of opportunities, and taking risks in order to help the organization be productive and effective while achieving one's career and personal goals.

The purpose of career development is to enhance each employee's current performance; enable individuals to take advantage of future job opportunities; and fulfill their employer's goals for a dynamic and effective workforce (Borgen, 1997). According to Borgen (1997), career development is an ongoing process where employees explore their interests and abilities, strategically plan their career goals and create their future work success by designing learning and action plans to help them achieve their goals.

A very important component of career development is career counseling. Career counseling is the process of self-exploration combined with looking into the world of work (Betz, 2006). Life issues are a big part of your work issues and integrating them both into the counseling process makes for a well-rounded approach to career development (Betz, 2006).

Students (K through graduate school), adults, young and older workers, and retirees are all served by career counselors. Career counselors typically encourage those seeking career guidance to move through a planned career development process. For example, Hopkins employees desiring help with their next career move are given the chance to assess their current interests, values and skills and are encouraged to explore career options identified through this evaluation (Betz, 2006). Through this deliberate process, Hopkins has assured staff and faculty that they will be in a better position to make effective decisions regarding their next career move (Betz, 2006).

Several theorists made great contributions to career development. This paper will discuss the contributions of Ginzberg, Super, Holland, Rowe, Lent, Brown and Hatchett, Krumboltz and Tiedman. I will discuss the theory associated with each individual and the impact the theory had on career development. In addition, this paper will identify through research, evaluation and reflection, the importance of career development throughout the life span.

The History of Career Development

The National Vocational Guidance Association panel defines the term career as "the totality of work one does in his/her lifetime." (Gies, 1990). Career development involves the integration of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and chance factors that provide the basis for a career over an individual's life (Gies, 1990). Career development is in fact a lifelong process.

Over the years, counselors have based their practices on specific theories and derived their frames of references from the philosophy, beliefs and techniques of their theoretical practice. Career counseling theories provide guidelines for counselors. And without a theoretical basis, the counselor lacks credibility and structure and lacks a basis on which understanding and insight can be developed (Gies, 1990).

Career counseling has a long and illustrious past, dating back to the contributions of Frank Parsons and including notable theories and substantial research related to career development (Whiston, 2003). According to Whiston (2003), one of career counseling's strengths is its rich history and substantial body of literature. The roots of career counseling can be traced to Frank Parsons, and his three-step model still influences many practitioners' approach to career counseling (Whiston, 2003). Whiston (2003), states that often in career counseling, there are elements of assisting the client in knowing himself or herself, gaining knowledge of the world of work, and integrating the information about self and occupations.

Although some individuals still believe that career counseling is this simple approach, there have been other significant theoretical contributions related to vocational psychology that have influenced the practice of career counseling (Whiston, 2003). Whiston (2003), states that Savickas, Super (1996) and Holland (1997), developed important theories with extensive research that provided significant insight into individuals' career development and the intersection between personality and career direction.

Since the first meeting of the National Vocational Guidance Association, career counselors have begun to understand the career counseling process and how to structure the process to assist clients (Whiston, 2003). In the last 90 years, researchers have also developed a number of psychometrically sound and useful career assessments. Furthermore, there has been substantial research related to the constructs that provide the foundation for future assessment (Whiston, 2003). In addition, practitioners have an expanding knowledge base related to the career needs and issues of diverse groups of individuals.

In the last few decades, there also has been a growing body of literature related to the effects of race and social class on career development (Whiston, 2003). Today, many career counselors are able to effectively assist their clients in identifying and accomplishing their career goals. Theorists and researchers have contributed a vast amount of information to career development.

The Significance of Career Development

Traditional models of personal and career development closely parallel one another. In the area of personal development, several theorists have suggested a relatively orderly linear progression of developmental issues to be addressed across the life span. Career theorists who have had a great deal of influence in the field have projected a similarly ordered and evolutionary path.

The process of initiating or reacting to shifts in life role opportunities is one that presents several challenges to people, both those who are experiencing the changes and those who are trying to help them (Borgen, 1997). This is particularly true for people who are experiencing change not by choice, but as a result of shifting environmental opportunities and demands. In the area of career, changes in labor market opportunities have become an increasingly important influence on the decisions that people are able to make and when they are able to make them (Borgen, 1997).

Many people are now experiencing difficulty caused by changes in job opportunities while unemployed or working. In many cases, difficulties are caused by external circumstances related to the restructuring of the economy. People caught in these changes are propelled into a position of transition. According to Guindon & Lee (2005), these individuals often need assistance in making sense of the situations in which they find themselves, and help in developing new expectations and action plans that fit the new realities of uncertainty and redefined areas of personal control.

According to Lindley (2005), there are four general principles underlying developmental approaches to career guidance. 1) Individual development is a continuous process; 2) the development process is irreversible; 3) these processes can be differentiated into patterns called stages in the life span; 4) and that the result of normal development is increasing maturity.

As we age and acquire more information, our maturity level increases. In regards to career development, I would like to reflect on career maturity. Career maturity is an important aspect of the developmental process. Career maturity has been defined as the individual's ability to make appropriate career choices, including awareness of what is required to make a career decision and the degree to which one's choices are both realistic and consistent over time (Caswell, Kiewra, Levinson & Ohler, 1998). Career maturity can also be defined as the extent to which an individual has acquired the necessary knowledge and skills to make intelligent, realistic career choices (Caswell et. al,1998). Career maturity is when an individual is able to make an informed, age-appropriate career decision and cope with the appropriate career development tasks. According to Caswell et. al (1998), measures of career maturity may be used to identify a client's readiness to make career decisions and to identify areas a counselor must focus on with a client to enable the client to acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for realistic and informed decision-making.

Due to the constant changes in society, many individuals are forced to make career changes. I previously worked as a Counselor, at San Jacinto College, in Houston, Texas. I had the opportunity to provide advising, career and personal counseling to many students. Some of my students were looking for a career change. They had been laid off from their previous job, unhappy with their current job, or just wanted to pursue a new career based on some of their interests or skills. Some of my students returned to college because they needed to receive additional education or certifications to advance into a new position. Still, there were other students who had placed their educational goals on hold in order to focus on marriage and raising their children, and they were now ready to pursue their career goals. Whatever the reason, I was responsible for providing the appropriate level of counseling to assist the students in achieving their educational and career goals.

Career counselors play an important role in career development. Counselors are able to offer assistance and guidance to students of many ages. There are assessments available that help pinpoint specific careers and occupations for individuals based on their interests and skills. While working as a counselor, I administered and interpreted the Myers Briggs Type Indicator, Strong, Campbell and Career Compass Assessments. These assessments were very beneficial to the students. The assessments also provided me with feedback that I could use in my counseling sessions with the students.

Best practices for counselors involves responsible decisions about when to use career assessment instruments, and which instrument is best suited for use in a particular counseling situation (Caswell et. al, 1998). Career assessment has historically been a fundamental tool of the counselor. The notion of comprehensive career guidance embraces familiarity with a broad repertoire of assessment strategies, and, increasingly, these tools have been differentiated by setting and populations (Caswell et. al, 1998). Tests and inventories may be used to shape the goals of the counseling relationship and define what is relevant and important for a particular client.

Career development allows individuals to embrace new changes in life. Since we are constantly faced with changes, there is no particular age when career development will end. Many people will continue to make career related decisions until they die.Career development involves identifying one's interests, beliefs, values, desires, and skills. Overall, career development is a major factor in life span development.

Career Developmental Theorists and Theories

Several theorists made great contributions to career development. These individuals contributed helpful information to counselors and other practitioners involved with career development. I will discuss the individuals that made a lasting impact on career development.

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma Theory- 1951

Recognizing that vocational choice is influenced by four facts: the reality factor, the influence of the educational process, the emotional factor and individual values, this theory proposes that it is a development path that leads to career choice (Guindon & Lee, 2005). Guindon & Lee (2005), states starting in preteen and ending in young adulthood, individuals pass through three stages: fantasy, tentative and realistic.

In the fantasy stage, the child is free to pursue any occupational choice. Through this process the child's preferred activities are identified and related to future career choices (Guindon & Lee, 2005). Beginning in the preteen years and continuing through high school, the young person further defines their interests in, capacity for and values of an occupational choice. The cumulative effect of the process is the transition process in which the adolescent begins the career choice process, recognizes the consequences and responsibility of that choice (Guindon & Lee, 2005).

The realistic stage, spanning from the mid-adolescence through young adulthood, has three sub-stages: exploration crystallization and specification. In the exploration stage the adolescent begins to restrict choices based on personal likes, skills and abilities. In the crystallization stage an occupational choice is made. Lastly, the specification stage is where the individual pursues the educational experiences required for achieving his career goal (Guindon & Lee, 2005).

According to Guindon & Lee (2005), this theory is shown not to fit with every adolescent's career choice process. It has been recognized that issues of gender, race and social class comes into play to open or close doors of occupational choice. This theory identifies four factors that contributes to career choice. In other words, there is not just one factor that influences a person's career choice. These theorists discussed how individuals pass through the three stages. This information is important because it reflects a developmental process that occurs from preteen until young adulthood.

Donald Super's Theory of Vocational Choice- 1954

Donald Super has generated a life span vocational choice theory that has six life and career development stages (Gies, 1990). These six stages are:

The crystallization stage, ages 14-18

Specific stage, ages 18-21

Implementation stage, ages 21-24

The stabilization stage, ages 24-35

Consolidation, age 35

Readiness for retirement, age 55

Gies (1990), states that one of Super's greatest contributions to career development has been his emphasis on the role that self-concept development plays. Super, recognized that self-concept changes and develops throughout people's lives as a result of experience. People successively refine their self-concept(s) over time and application to the world of work creates adaptation in their career choice.

Super describes vocational development as involving a compromise between personal and social factors, self-concept and reality, and newly learned and existing patterns of responses (Gies, 1990). The closer the chosen occupation is to self-concept the more meaningful the choice will be. Super's theory emphasized that each person has a wide range of abilities, personality characteristics, and traits. These factors enable each individual to qualify for success in a number of occupations. Super felt that individuals must not be guided in a narrow career direction.

I agree with Super, because individuals should be given an opportunity to examine a number and variety of appropriate career choices. Counselors should not limit clients or students to just one career choice. Many individuals have the skills and knowledge to pursue different careers. I feel that limiting an individual to one career choice can actually negatively affect that person's overall happiness and success in life. It is important for career counselors to ensure that they are not limiting the scope of possibilities available to the student.

Key to Super's theory is that vocational likes, dislikes, and abilities are not static (Gies, 1990). The living and working environment and therefore self-concepts change with time and experience. This makes choice and adjustment a continuous process. Roles, abilities, interests, and desires change. These changes and modifications are re-elected in changes in career paths of individuals (Gies, 1990). Career counselors must recognize and support the changing nature of an individual's career in response to changes in self-concept.

The developmental process can be divided into a series of life stages described as growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline; each of which provides opportunities for counseling intervention (Gies, 1990). The growth stage involves psychological as well as physical growth. During this stage, self-concept is developed, while at the same time experiences provide knowledge of the world of work (Gies, 1990). The exploratory stage starts with the fantasy period during which an individual realizes that an occupation will be a part of one's life even though the desired occupation is often realistic (Gies, 1990). During the tentative phase of the exploratory stage, the individual chooses several possibilities. The number of alternatives is gradually reduced to include goals that the individual feels can be reached whether or not choices and decisions made during the exploratory stage are realistic (Gies, 1990). During the establishment stage, the individual tries to discover whether or not choices and decisions made during the exploratory stage are realistic. This period involves trying on" a job (Gies, 1990). The maintenance phase involves adjustment and improvement. The pre-retirement period occurs in the decline phase during which the individual's emphasis is on retaining the job rather than enhancing it (Gies, 1990).

Only male subjects participated in Super's studies and in the studies that were carried out by Levinson and Gould. Therefore, counselors must be cautious of applying Super's life stages to women (Gies, 1990). Super's theory serves as an excellent base for a career counselor's personal career counseling theory; at least as far as males are concerned. Super provides a strong theoretical basis and stresses critical points from which a career counselor can build a personal theory.

John Holland's Career Typology- 1959

John Holland, felt that career development was a developmental process obtained through heredity and the individual's life history of reacting to the environmental demands. He created a hexagon model to illustrate the relationship between personality and occupational environment (Feller & Honaker, 2001). Holland's theory is grounded in what he calls modal personal orientation or a developmental process established through heredity and the individual's life history of reacting to environmental demands (Feller & Honaker, 2001). Individuals are attracted to a particular occupation that meets their personal needs and provides them satisfaction.

According to Feller & Honaker (2001), Holland's theory rests on four assumptions: In our culture, a person can be categorized as one of the following: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising or Conventional. There are six modal environments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. Behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. A hexagon model was developed to illustrate the relationship between personality and occupational environment (Gies, 1990).

Much research supports Holland's typology, however the strongest criticism is based on gender bias because females tend to score higher in three personality types (artistic, social and conventional). Holland attributes this to our society that channels females into female-dominated occupations (Feller & Honaker, 2001).

Lent, Brown and Hackett's Social Cognitive Theory- 1987

The Social Cognition Career Theory (SCTT) has grown out of Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory and attempts to address issues of culture, gender, genetic endowment, social context and unexpected life events that may interact with and supersede the effects of career-related choices (Lindley, 2005). The SCCT focuses on the connection of self-efficacy, outcome expectations and personal goals that influence an individual's career choice (Lindley, 2005).

SCCT suggests that career choice is influenced by the beliefs the individual develops and refines through four major sources: a) personal performance accomplishments, b) vicarious learning, c) social persuasion and d) physiological states and reactions. (Lindley, 2005). How these aspects work together in the career development process is through a process in which an individual develops an expertise/ability for a particular endeavor and meets with success (Lindley, 2005). According to Lindley (2005), this process reinforces one's self-efficacy or belief in future continued success in the use of this ability/expertise. As a result, a person in likely to develop goals that involve continuing involvement in that activity/endeavor.

If the individual perceives few barriers the likelihood of success reinforces the career choice, but if the barriers are viewed as significant there is a weaker interest and choice actions (Lindley, 2005). According to this theory, beginning in early childhood and continuing throughout adulthood, one narrows the scope to successful endeavors to focus on, and forms a career goal/choice. Lindley (2005), states by adolescence, most people have a sense of their competence at a vast array of performance areas, along with convictions about the likely outcomes of a career. Through a process of intervening learning experiences that further shape one's abilities and impacts self-efficacy and outcome beliefs, one's vocational interests, choices and performances are shaped and reshaped.

A main component that I like about the SCCT, is that a person's social and economic contexts are addressed. I also like how the theorist addressed that new learning experiences further shape our abilities. I believe that social factors have an impact on our career choices. Therefore, it is important to examine this area as we look at career development.

John Krumboltz's Planned Happenstance Theory

John Krumboltz, a well-known psychologist who focuses on career issues, has proposed that successes such as these often result from "planned happenstance"- creating and transforming unplanned events into career opportunities (Feller & Honaker, 2001). Krumboltz proposes that since we know that chance factors play an important role in most people's careers, we should cultivate the capacity to create, recognize and incorporate chance events into our ongoing career management (Feller & Honaker, 2001).

He further suggests that most people will admit that unplanned events played a role in their careers, but what they may not see is how their own actions contributed (Feller & Honaker, 2001). Many will readily acknowledge that events such as personal and professional connections or being in the right place at the right time contributed to their successes. However, those same individuals will often overlook what they did to get to know those significant people or the actions they took that led them to be in the right place at the right time.

So, how can you use an understanding of planned happenstance to your career's advantage? According to Feller & Honaker (2001), Krumboltz, makes the following suggestions:

1. Recognize that planned happenstance is already in your career history.

2. Use your curiosity to lead you to new opportunities for learning and exploration.

3. Take concrete steps to produce desirable chance events.

I agree with Krumboltz's theory because unplanned events can greatly influence our career decisions. For example, many individuals have been laid off from work and they are forced to re-evaluate their situation and search for a new position. The new position may result in that person having to re-locate to another area. Being laid off from a job is just one example of an unplanned event.

David Tiedman's Theory of Career Development

Tiedman and O'Hara (who worked with Tiedman on the original theory) state that career development is a process of organizing an identification with work through the interaction of the individual's personality with society (Gies, 1990). According to Gies (1990), career development involves matching one's personality with society. Like Super, Tiedman believes that career development spans a person's lifetime. Tiedman insists that, if career is to serve as a portion of an individual's life, then career must be related to a larger life pattern (Gies, 1990). Individual decisions are important to vocational development. Decisions about school, work, and daily activities all have a direct effect on the career development pattern. Gies (1990), states that Tiedman describes two main periods of decision-making, each with sub-stages:

Period of Anticipation

Exploration

Crystallization

Choice

Specification

Period of Implementation and Adjustment

Induction

Transition

Maintenance

During the exploration stage, individuals look at a number of alternatives or goals, and at themselves in relation to these choices (Gies, 1990). Crystallization takes place when choices become clearer and better understood and evaluated (Gies, 1990). People make choices and these goals influence the way they behave. Career counselors are an important influence during this stage (Gies, 1990). Specification occurs after the choice has been made, but before a person moves towards the implementation of the choices (Gies, 1990).

Implementation is initiated with the induction phase. During this phase, a person tries to fit his or her goal into a wider framework of the group or society (Gies, 1990). If successful, she or he moves into the maintenance stage and at that time an attempt is made to maintain satisfying equilibrium (Gies, 1990).

I agree with Tiedman that the career spans a person's lifetime. I also agree with Tiedman that individual decisions are important to career development. For example, one will choose to attend a college, university, or trade school based on their career goals. If a person has already decided upon a career choice, then that person would need to attend a school that offers that program of study; if education is required for that career.

The Impact of Career Development on Each Age Group

Children

In the United States, the career development of children has long been viewed as important to the school curriculum. Today, career development is part of the National Standards of the American School Counselor Association (Guindon & Lee, 2005). According to Guindon & Lee (2005), developmental theorists including Donald Super and Linda Gottfredson, have cited stages and tasks relative to childhood that have influenced career activities in schools. According to Gottfredson's theory, children's perceptions of self and their perceptions of occupational gender roles play a part in occupational selection (Guindon & Lee, 2005). This may change as they mature.

Pre-teens and Adolescents

During this time frame students make curricular decisions that may influence their career paths at a later time (Guindon & Lee, 2005). Students' occupational aspirations and expectations are measured and identified by school counselors. School counselors work closely with students to identify the proper curriculum for them to follow based on the student's goals. During adolescence, many students begin exploring career options, looking into post secondary institutes and/or military options.

Young Adulthood

During this time, individuals enter an occupation once a person has made an informed decision about the best personal job match, and the opportunity to progress within a career path or change paths within the context of relatively stable or expanding labor market opportunities (Borgen, 1997). Many young adults find themselves preparing for the world of work. Some transition into different jobs and others adjust to changed or unique circumstances that have arisen in their life (Borgen, 1997). Young adulthood brings about new and exciting opportunities for many individuals. During this time, many people embrace independence and start a new adventure in life for the first time.

Middle Adulthood

The middle period has been described as a time of re-adjustment of perceptions of career and personal identity, and as a time of feeling lost, with rapid shifts in emotion (Borgen, 1997). According to Borgen (1997), the process of transition may end with either positive or negative consequences, but the result is often seen as the re-establishment of a new sense of stability regarding the person's position on his or her career path.

Many people are faced with the prospect that they may lose their jobs, or those who have been unemployed and have been unsuccessful in reconnecting with the labor market, the turbulent and uncertain middle period of the transition process may be protracted (Borgen, 1997). Borgen (1997), states that for people who do move through the middle stage of the transition process and reconnect with the labor market, the re-establishment of a sense of career stability may be elusive.

Late Adulthood and Seniors

During this time, many individuals begin preparing for retirement or post-retirement careers. Important decions must be made in regards to the individual's current occupation and/or future post-retirement occupation. After retirement, many individuals return to the workforce for various reasons. Some people need the income, some enjoy working, and others are lonely or bored at home.

My father returned to the workforce after retirement. He enjoyed working and being around other people. It gave him a sense of fulfillment to get up in the morning and go to work. He said that if he didn't work, he felt that he would age too quickly. He wanted to remain physically active and therefore worked until he was 76. I am sure that other seniors can relate to why he felt that it was important to continue working.

Summary

This research paper addressed the importance of career development throughout the life span. It is necessary for everyone to understand that career development is a lifelong process. It is a constant and continuous process. We are forever changing and growing, therefore, we must make informed career decisions that will satisfy our needs. From birth until death, we are developing in some way or fashion.

So much research has been conducted on career development. This research has allowed counselors to appropriately assist students and clients with achieving their career aspirations and goals. Career development is a major component in life span development. Throughout life we will continue to acquire knowledge, skills, and undergo changes that will effect our career decisions.

References

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Gies, Vivian (1990). Developing a personal career counseling theory: An overview of the theories of donald super and david tiedman. Guidance & Counseling, 6(1), 1-5.

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