How Music Can Affect Academic Achievement

The Cognitive theory is concerned with the development of one's thought processes or basically how the mind acquires knowledge. There are many ideas that make up the cognitive theories-from the developmental theories of Piaget to relatively more recent theories like Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory.
Jean Piaget's Genetic Epistemology theory has profoundly affected our knowledge of child development. With his background on Biology and Philosophy, he came up with his theoretical framework consisting of stages of cognitive development. The main assumption of Piaget's theory is that there are cognitive structures called schemas which are "patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development (Genetic Epistemology: J. Piaget, 2008)."

According to Piaget, there are four developmental stages: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperation period (3-7 years) is intuitive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions (Genetic Epistemology: J. Piaget, 2008). Though the stages are associated with specific age spans, Piaget maintains that they actually vary for every person. Moreover, under each stage, there are many detailed structural forms like classification and relations, spatial relationships, time, movement, chance, number, conservation and measurement for concrete operational period.

Some implications of this theory to education include readiness. The students must be ready before certain developmental tasks are assigned to them. A teacher shouldn't expect a concrete operational student to answer perfectly questions that require abstractions.

B.F. Skinner's theory of Operant Conditioning is one of the earliest studies into learning. He proposed that learning is a "function of change in overt behaviour. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond (Operant Conditioning: BF Skinner, 2008)." A key aspect of Skinner's S-R theory is the presence of reinforcements. "A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction." There are also negative reinforcers which are "any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (Operant Conditioning: BF Skinner, 2008)." His theory has applications in classroom management and conditions on how students could best learn-through appropriate incentives.

Another important cognitive theory is Carl Roger's Experiential Learning Theory. According to Rogers, there are two kinds of learning: (1) cognitive-essentially meaningless; and (2) experiential-significant. The key difference of the two is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner-it translates to personal change or growth on the learner. The following are the qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement, self-initiated, self-evaluated, and has pervasive effects on the learner (Experiential Learning: C. Rogers, 2008). The implication of this theory in education is very challenging-to facilitate such learning and to make the students feel the need or want to learn. According to Rogers, "learning is facilitated when: (1) the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction, (2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems, and (3) self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success. Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change (Experiential Learning: C. Rogers, 2008)".

Edward Thorndike expands Skinner's S-R framework by adding two other factors-the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. He proposed that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and response-without referring to any unobservable internal states (Connectionism: E. Thorndike, 2008). Thorndike's theory is composed of three primary laws: (1) law of effect-- responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation; (2) law of readiness-- a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked; and (3) law of exercise-- connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength (Connectionism: E. Thorndike, 2008). The educational implication of this theory is that learning occurs when there is an appropriate incentive (law of effect), if the students are ready to grasp the concepts taught (law of readiness) and if adequate practice is provided (law of exercise).

Edward De Bono proposed the theory of lateral thinking. Lateral thinking refers to a process of solving problems using a different perspective to be successful. He identified four factors related to lateral thinking: (1) recognize dominant ideas that polarize perception of a problem, (2) searching for different ways of looking at things, (3) relaxation of rigid control of thinking, and (4) use of chance to encourage other ideas. This last factor has to do with the fact that lateral thinking involves low-probability ideas which are unlikely to occur in the normal course of events. His theory is directly related to creativity (Lateral Thinking: DeBono, 2008). Implications of this theory in education are more on problems solving and critical thinking-with an emphasis on creativity.

Perhaps no other theory finally recognizes the value of music like Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory. Gardner's main thesis is that "there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees." These are classified into seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills) (Multiple Intelligences: Gardner, 2008).

According to Gardner, the educational implication of this theory is in focusing on the particular intelligences-each intelligences represents different domains of learning and also entails different learning modalities. This also implies that there should be means of evaluating and assessing for all types of intelligences-not only the traditional linguistics and logical-mathematical (Multiple Intelligences: Gardner, 2008).

Cognitive theories such as these three are relevant in this research because they imply that cognitive development requires readiness, practice, and perhaps a bit of predisposition. They imply that the means by which one learns is not confined within the traditional classroom lecture experience-there are other means by which one may acquire knowledge.

Recent reports show that there seems to be a relationship between music and academic achievement. Schools in Netherlands, Hungary, and Japan have integrated music into their curricula as early as 1960s. All schools have outstanding academic achievements, especially in math and science (Dickinson, 1993). Other reports include American schools following suit and investing on music and arts program resulting in improved academic performances and that the foremost technical designers and engineers in Silicon Valley are musically inclined (Dickinson, 1993).

A group of researchers from the University of California, Irvine (UCI) published a study stating that there is a connection between music affects cognitive development. Apparently, taking piano lessons and solving computer math puzzles significantly improves specific math skills of elementary school children (American Music Conference, 2007)."
According to UCI professor emeritus George Shaw, "Piano instruction is thought to enhance the brain's 'hard-wiring' for special-temporal reasoning, or the ability to visualize and transform objects in space and time (American Music Conference, 2007)." Furthermore according to Kathryn Vaughn, there is a connection between music and mathematics since both subject areas use numbers, repeating patterns and ratios (Vaughn, 2000).

The UCI study involved 135 second grade students from Los Angeles. Prior to the test administration, the students were given four months of piano keyboard training and playtime with a newly designed computer game. The computer game is called Spatial-Temporal Animation Reasoning (STAR). The software allows the children to solve geometric and math puzzles. The theory behind this study is that music involves mathematics like ratios, and fractions, proportions and requires one to think in space and time. Likewise the computer game helps the students to maneuver shapes in their minds.

The children who underwent these two activities (took piano lessons and played STAR) scored twenty-seven percent higher on proportional math and fraction tests than other children who took English lessons instead of piano lessons but played STAR. The children in the study performed even better than the students who neither took piano lessons nor played with STAR (American Music Conference, 2007).

Shaw also wrote "Music Enhances Learning: Keeping Mozart in Mind" in 1999 whereby he detailed on a 1993 study involving college-level students scoring better on spatial-temporal reasoning tests after listening to a piano sonata composed by Mozart dubbed by the media as the "Mozart Effect." The media's uptake on this test was incredible; it spawned merchandise and TV shows featuring classical music which can supposedly make kids smarter. What was left on the fine print was that the test was conducted on adults and that no scientific explanations supports that listening to classical music boosts children's intelligence (McKelvie & Low, 2002).

In a research conducted by Hodges and O'Connell, several points regarding the relationship of music to academic achievement were noted: (1) some music experiences have a positive impact on academic performance under certain circumstances; and (2) none of the studies took into account the capabilities of teachers in integrating music in the curriculum-logically, excellent and enthusiastic teachers may contribute to the success of the methods used in learning (Hodges & O'Connell, 2005).

Though some researches suggest that music "may act as a catalyst for cognitive abilities in other disciplines and the relationship between music and spatial-temporal reasoning is particularly compelling," there are however certain aspects that remain unanswered. The exact aspects of music instruction (should it be taught, used as background music, etc.) necessary to contribute to the transfer effect is still unknown. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine the duration of the effects. The testing materials themselves may not be sensitive enough to gauge the amount of effect attributed by music instruction. Though evidence supporting the enhancement of spatial-temporal abilities may be attributed to music, the relationship of music instruction to development other areas of mathematics and reading remain vague. Finally in light of these studies, though there are strong implications for certain changes in policy and practice, caution must be taken to make sure that scientific goals do not overshadow "developmentally appropriate music instruction" (Music Educators National Conference (MENC), 1994).

Though there is still no absolute proof that music is directly correlated to academic achievement, as educators, we must never cease to try new things to make learning as easy, interesting and fun for our students.

Bibliography
American Music Conference. (2007). AMC--The Voice of Music Making. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.amc-music.org/musicmaking/brain/irvine.htm
Conditions of Learning: R. Gagne. (2008). Retrieved April 11, 2008, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction:The Theory Into Practice Database: http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html
Dickinson, D. (1993). Music and the Mind. New Horizons for Learning .
Experiential Learning: C. Rogers. (2008). Retrieved April 11, 2008, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction:The Theory Into Practice Database: http://tip.psychology.org/rogers.html
Genetic Epistemology: J. Piaget. (2008). Retrieved April 11, 2008, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction:The Theory Into Practice Database: http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html
Gestalt Theory: Wertheimer. (2008). Retrieved April 11, 2008, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction:The Theory Into Practice Database: http://tip.psychology.org/wertheim.html
Hodges, D. A., & O'Connell, D. S. (2005). Sounds of Learning. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.uncg.edu/mus/SoundsOfLearning/AcdemicAchievement.pdf
McKelvie, P., & Low, J. (2002). Listening to Mozart does not improve children's spatial ability: Final curtains for the Mozart effect. British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 241-258.
Multiple Intelligences: Gardner. (2008). Retrieved April 11, 2008, from Explorations in Learning & Instruction:The Theory Into Practice Database: http://tip.psychology.org/gardner.html
Music Educators National Conference (MENC). (1994). The School Music Program:A New Vision. Music Educators National Conference (MENC). Reston, VA.
Vaughn, K. (2000). Music and Mathematics: Modest support for the oft-claimed relationship. Journal of Aesthetic Education , 149-166.