Human Development: The Growing Adolescent

Although individuals are different, people who are older than eighteen to twenty years old went through the adolescent stage before transitioning to young adulthood. Several changes occur during the adolescent stage of life. These changes often occur simultaneously and can be influenced by the adolescent's ecological system. This system interacts with adolescents on many levels. At each level, there are biological, cognitive, social, and emotional changes. Several theories can be applied to these changes to help further understand the human development stage of adolescents.

During the adolescent stage of human development, adolescents experience various changes in their physical development. Some of these changes occur rapidly and simultaneously. These changes include but or not limited to changes in their appearance, secondary sex characteristics, and continued brain development. Individuals in the adolescent stage may experience growth spurts. These growth spurts include rapid gains in height and weight. During a one-year growth spurt, boys and girls can gain an average of 4.1 inches and 3.5 inches in height respectively (Steinberg, 1999) . The girls usually develop two years earlier than boys (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Weight gain results from increased muscle development in boys and body fat in girls (Steinberg, 1999). Female adolescents typically experience changes in fat distribution, growth of pubic hair, breast development, and the beginning of menstrual cycles boys (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Male adolescents typically experience testicular growth, voice changes, growth of pubic hair, and frequent occurrences of "wet dreams" (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). During this pubescent stage, hormonal changes play a role in triggering the development of secondary sex characteristics in males and females. These include: growth of pubic hair, menarche (first menstrual period for girls) or penis growth (for boys), voice changes (for boys), growth of underarm hair, facial hair growth (for boys), increased production of oil, increased sweat gland activity, and the beginning of acne (Steinberg, 1999). Research suggests that the brains of pubescent males and females are not completely developed until late in adolescence. Specifically, studies suggest that the connections between neurons affecting emotional, physical and mental abilities are incomplete. This could explain why some teens seem to be inconsistent in controlling their emotions, impulses, and judgments (Brownlee, 1999). Such physical changes often lead to experimentation with their bodies through masturbation (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Granville Stanley Hall believed that, "The pubescent age is marked by new kind of dermal consciousness. Our records show some cases of youths who have been fond of dropping tallow from a lighted candle on to their hands to have satisfaction of picking it off later" (Hall, 1904). Hall (1904) also believed that with the development of different vocal range:

Pubescent boys are especially prone to yell and indulge in vocal gymnastics of a drastic kind. They often become experts in imitating animals, the other sex, instruments, locomotives, and sounds in nature. Girls simper, affect boyish phonation, and then may become mincing and overnice. (p. 30)
These physical changes may lead to clumsiness, competitive self-image issues in order to keep up with their peers, and constant comparison of themselves against their peers.

One may recognize that adolescence have superior cognitive skills than younger children. The reasoning, thinking, judgmental, and meta-cognition skills in an adolescent are in different stages of development. At this stage, adolescents mostly base judgments on concrete rules of right and wrong, good or bad (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Circumstantial morality and the "gray" areas of issues are not yet integrated into their judgments. As a result, pre-teen and teens also typically think in terms of the present rather than the future (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). This not only impairs their farsighted sense of consequence, but it makes it difficult for teens to see past their current actions to the range of effects their words and actions may have on others. Although this part of cognitive development is still growing, adolescents may start to think abstractly and engage in thoughts about complex issues (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Abstract thinking means thinking about things that cannot be seen, heard, or touched such as: faith, trust, beliefs and spirituality (Steinberg, 1999). Advanced reasoning skills adolescents typically encounter include the ability to think about multiple options and possibilities (Steinberg, 1999). It includes a more logical thought process and the ability to think about things hypothetically (Steinberg, 1999) such as, "what if this event happened to me? I would respond with this time of action...." The ability to think about the process of thinking is called "meta-cognition"(Steinberg, 1999). Meta-cognition enables individuals to think about how they feel, what they are thinking, and why they are thinking. It involves being able to investigate how a person is perceived by others. It can also be used to develop strategies, also known as mnemonic devices, for improving learning (Steinberg, 1999).

The most important cognitive transformation theorized to occur during the adolescent stage involves the materialization of what Piaget has called "Formal Operations" (Piaget, 1972; Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Formal Operations are reflected in increased ability to reason hypothetically independently of concrete situations, and to describe one's own reasoning processes (Davis, 1998). In the samples studied by Inhelder and Piaget, Formal Operations are said to become established between the ages of roughly eleven and fifteen. Another theory about cognitive development during the adolescent stage comes from Erikson. Erikson labeled the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about thirteen or fourteen to about twenty) as Learning Identity versus Identity Diffusion (Child Development Institute, 1998). During this crisis, the adolescent learns how to answer the question of "Who am I?" Most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self - doubts flood the youngster, and so on (Child Development Institute, 1998). Cognitive changes within adolescents have the ability to lead to a variety of behaviors. For instance, teens demonstrate a heightened level of self-consciousness (Huebner, 2000). Huebner went on to say, "Teens tend to believe that everyone is as concerned with their thoughts and behaviors as they are. This leads teens to believe that they have an 'imaginary audience' of people who are always watching them." Adolescents tend to believe that no one else has ever experienced similar feelings and emotions (Huebner, 2000). As a result of this egocentric view, they may become overly dramatic and sensitive. They may say things like "You don't understand," or "I can never go out in public again!" are typical phrases adolescents may use to show their dramatic egocentric view of situations they deem as unfair. As a combination of their incomplete brain development and reasoning skills, adolescents tend to exhibit the "it can't happen to me" which causes teens to take unnecessary risks (i.e. drinking and driving having unprotected sex, or smoking) (Huebner, 2000). Teens and/or preteens tend to become very cause-oriented as their cognitive abilities mature and continue developing. Their activism is related to the ability to think about abstract concepts (Huebner, 2000). For example, after reading about cruelty to animals a teen may become a vegetarian and a member of "People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals" (P.E.T.A.) (Huebner, 2000). The cognitive aspect of adolescent development can be seen on many levels of the Ecological System's Theory. From the individual level to national organizations, the cognitive development within an adolescent crosses many systems.

There are several known psychosocial issues that adolescents cope with during their adolescent stage of development. These issues are: identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, and achievement. During social development, the adolescent becomes increasingly self-sufficient (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). He or she usually seeks friends with beliefs and values similar to those of his or her family (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Peers as well as physical development may influence adolescents to become more occupied with their appearance, clothing, and interests (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). Unfortunately, these influences and peer pressure can lead to risky social behaviors (i.e. experimenting with drugs, alcohol, and tobacco) (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). This leads into the five recognized psychosocial issues that teens deal with during their adolescent years. The first one is establishing an identity. This has been called one of the most important tasks of adolescents because the identity questions are not one that adolescents think about at a conscious level (Steinberg, 1999). Instead, over the course of the adolescent years, teens and pre-teens learn how to incorporate the opinions of influential others (e.g. parents, family, friends, etc.) into their own likes, dislikes, and interests (Steinberg, 1999). The second one is establishing autonomy. Autonomy does not mean that the individual must be totally independent. Rather than severing relationships, however, establishing autonomy during the teen years really means becoming an independent and self-governing person within relationships (Brownlee, 1999). Autonomous teens have gained the ability to make and follow through with their own decisions, live by their own set of principles of right and wrong, and have become less emotionally dependent on parents (Brownlee, 1999). This aspect of psychosocial development is a necessary achievement becoming a self-sufficient functioning adult in society (Brownlee, 1999). The third issue is establishing intimacy. Many people, including pubescent males and females, erroneously equate intimacy with sex. Intimacy is usually first learned within the context of same-sex friendships, then utilized in romantic relationships. Intimacy refers to close relationships in which people are open, honest, caring and trusting (Hayward et. al, 1997). Friendships during this stage are important because they provide the first setting in which adolescents can practice their social skills with those who are their peers or contemporaries. It is with friends that teens learn how to begin, maintain, and terminate relationships, practice social skills, and become intimate (Hayward et. al, 1997). The fourth issue is becoming comfortable with one's sexuality. The teen years mark the first time that young people are both physically mature enough to reproduce and cognitively advanced enough to think about it (Hayward et. al, 1997). Given this, the teen years are the prime time for the development of sexuality. How teens are educated about and exposed to sexuality will largely determine whether or not they develop a healthy sexual identity. More than half of most high school students report being sexually active (Center for Disease Control, 1997). The mixed messages adolescents receive about sexuality contribute to tribulations such as teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (Hayward et. al, 1997). The final issue is achievement. Our society tends to foster and value attitudes of competition and success (Brownlee, 1999). Because of cognitive advances in adolescents that are not present in young children, the pre-teen and teen years become opportune times for youth to begin to make links between their current abilities and talents with plans for their future. This process includes locating what they are good at and what areas will help them reach an assortment of accomplishments.

Erikson, Jung, and George Herbert Mead proposed theories that coincide with the psychosocial aspect of adolescent development. Erikson's Industry versus Inferiority theory is the fourth psychosocial crisis and occurs during what he calls the "school age," presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school (Child Development Institute, 1998). Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: relating with peers according to rules, progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic (Child Development Institute, 1998). The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious (Child Development Institute, 1998). Frager & Fadiman (2005) summarized Carl Jung's assertions with:

The child's opposite-sex parent is a major influence on the development of the anima or animus. All relations with the opposite sex, including parents, are strongly affected by the projection of anima or animus fantasies. This archetype is one of the most influential regulators of behavior. (p. 56)
Jung called this archetype the "soul image" and theorized that it has the capacity to bring us in touch with our unconscious forces (Frager & Fadiman, (2005). George Herbert Mead noted the social conduct of adolescents in his paper The Social Self. In his paper, it is also to be noted that this response to the social conduct of the self may be in the role of another -- we present his arguments in imagination and do it with his intonations and gestures and event perhaps with his facial expression.

Adolescents experience a broad spectrum of behaviors during psychosocial development. For example, Huebner states that teens begin to spend more time with their friends than their families (2000). They are quick to point out to each other which behaviors are acceptable and which are not (Huebner, 2000). It is important to remember that even though teens are spending increased amounts of time with their friends, they still tend to conform to parental ideals when it comes to decisions about values, education, and long-term plans (Huebner, 2000). This reinforces the importance of active and caring parents in the adolescent's life. One can see how quickly an adolescent can evolve into a juvenile offender when the adolescent does not have any positive adult models during this important stage of their lives. In addition, adolescents may have more questions about sexuality, values, and beliefs (Huebner, 2000). In attempt to sort out and cope with their emotions and feelings, adolescents may begin to keep a diary. Thinking about one's thoughts is understood as part of achieving identity (Huebner, 2000). Privacy becomes important to an adolescent. He or she may begin to lock their bedroom doors when they are in their rooms. This is a way to establish privacy (Brownlee, 1999). According to Huebner, teens and pre-teens may become elusive about where they are going or with whom and they may not want to be seen with parents in public. Even though they may not want to be seen with parents in public, teens may begin to view parents more as people and may attempt to interact with adults more as equals (Huebner, 2000). During the psychosocial aspect of development, one can see that adolescents continue to cross through the micro and macro subsystems within the Ecological Systems Theory.

Adolescents may struggle with the emotional aspect of development as this part overlaps with the cognitive and psychosocial aspects of development. A dolescents may experience moody behavior or mood swings during this stage (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). They become sensitive and have a need for privacy and often will turn to people outside of the family for love and intimate relationships (University of Michigan Health System, 2003) as discussed previously. Families may feel their preteen or teen is rebellious as the adolescent becomes more opinionate and challenges the family rules (University of Michigan Health System, 2003). These adolescents may also try to "show-off" as they struggle with their sense of identity (University of Michigan Health System, 2003) and peer pressure to conform to a certain image or expectation. Social expectations also heighten academic stresses.

Not all adolescents develop according to theory. Their developmental stages can be different due to mental/medical disabilities or events that occur between the adolescent and his or her environment within the Ecological Systems Theory. For example, adolescents with autism may not go through the typical social or visible emotional changes as other adolescents. Their disability gives them a challenging disadvantage to communicating with their environment, creating friendships, and taking care of themselves. Jeremy, age seventeen, is an adolescent male with autism featured on MTV's True Life: I Have Autism show. He demonstrated how different his development was by allowing MTV camera crew to follow him around through out his day as he used a keyboard to attempt to spell out how he was feeling. The keyboard is how he would have to carry on dialogue with his family and peers. Before the keyboard, Jeremy had not had any friends. Piaget's theory would be difficult to apply to Jeremy because his diagnostician found the keyboard as a way of communication. Unlike many other adolescents with autism, Jeremy found a way to communicate his knowledge. I8f he could not verbalize his knowledge through a keyboard, it would be extremely difficult to access what level of cognitive processing he was operating within since he did not communicate in any other form other than short grunts. This is why such individuals with disabilities are an exception to the typical adolescent that many theorists have developed corresponding ideal characteristics and behaviors. Their development may or may not be impaired, but without proper tools to access these adolescents as one would an adolescent without a disability, it is a difficult task. Anna Freud (1952) addresses the behavior and development differences in adolescents who have mental illnesses:

When describing the neurotic disorders of their children, parents date back the onset of the trouble frequently to some bodily illness, after which the child appeared to be "different". Mood swings, changes in the relationship to parents and siblings, loss of self-confidence, temper tantrums often appear for the first time during convalescence after a severe illness. Symptoms such as bed wetting, soiling, feeding and sleeping troubles, school phobias, which had existed and been overcome earlier in life may reappear. Some children who had been considered brilliant in their intellectual performance before the illness, reappear afterward in school comparatively dull and apathetic; others surprise their parents and teachers by emerging from the same experience curiously ripened and matured. (p.70)

These mental limitations are not just mind altering, but they can also be physically altering to the adolescent. Poor nutrition, below poverty living conditions, and high exposure to illegal substances can have drastic effects on biological development.

As discussed the Ecological System's theory is an important factor in the development of adolescents. School, government, family, and peers are not only subsystems in the theory in respect to adolescents, but they can also be seen at other stages of human development. Therefore, learning more about the influences and changes of these systems can be used as a tool to further understand and appreciate other lifespan stages.

References

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