Icelandic Sagas and Therianmorphosis

The Sagas of the Icelanders were first written down in the thirteenth and early fourteenth century, and they provide enormous insight into traditional Norse mythologies, rituals, and ideologies. The Northmen or Norsemen (Vikings) were a Germanic people who had settled into the Scandinavian countries: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, the British Isles, Greenland and Iceland (Byock). Of particular interest, this saga provides information about the importance of certain animals in the pagan rituals and folklore of medieval Iceland. A notable folklore element typical of the Icelandic sagas found in King Hrolf and His Champions is the existence of therianmorphs (humans that have the ability to transform into animals). In Icelandic sagas, there are several origins of therianmorphosis: being cursed by an enemy, eating the flesh of an enchanted animal, drinking the blood of a supernatural creature, or entering into a supernatural trance. Similarly, therianmorphosis can be physical (a human's physical body is transformed to reflect the physical features of an animal) or spiritual (a human's personality is transformed to reflect the nature of an animal). These pagan philosophies concerning therianmorphosis are vividly presented in "The Story of Bothvar" from the Icelandic Saga, King Hrolf and His Champions, and they bring to light significant cultural aspects of life in the Viking era.

King Hrolf and His Champions was composed in medieval Iceland, and reflects the pagan Teutonic heritage of the Scandinavian peoples. The Teutons were the Germanic tribes that "were established three or four centuries before the Christian era in the south of Scandinavian peninsula, in the islands of the Baltic sea and on the great flat plain of north Germany between the Rhine and the Vistula" ("Teutonic Mythology" 287). King Hrolf and his Champions is significant because "it belong to the group of mythic-heroic Icelandic legends referred to as the "sagas of ancient times," or fomaldar sagas" (Byock). These texts are also referred to as the "legendary sagas" because they recount events that happened, or are believed to have taken place during the sixth century A.D. when King Hrolf, a warrior chieftain, ruled over Denmark (Byock).

The Icelandic sagas reflect pagan ideologies that form the basis of traditional Teutonic mythologies. For example, the Icelanders preserved the legends of traditional Teutonic gods:

The Scandinavians alone had the heart to save and perpetuate the memory of ancient beliefs. Their poets and scholars, even when they belonged to the Christian church, piously noted down the legends of the pagan gods. The old collection of anonymous poems known as the Eddas, -- of Christianity into Scandinavia-- the songs of the skalds, the sages, the manuals of poetry, the works of history and erudition which medieval Iceland, Norway, Denmark and Sweden have left us, bring to life with much vigour and colour the ancient gods of the Teutonic pantheon and their cohorts of innumerable secondary divinities. It is almost entirely through the literature of Scandinavia that we know the legends of the great gods like Woden-Odin and Donar-Thor. ("Teutonic Mythology" 252)

The Teutonic pantheon is of particular importance to the Icelandic sagas, and the pagan philosophy of therianmorphosis. The Teutons thought that certain men (therianmorphs) could metamorphosis into animal; furthermore, werewolves played a significant part in Teutonic mythologies, and they were associated with Wuotan-Odin ("Teutonic Mythology" 287). Jacob Grimm discusses the connection between Wuotan-Odin and therianmorphic representations of were-creatures; in addition, he explains that their presence was typical in Teutonic folklore:

Our magicians have the power of assuming an animal shape: the men prefer changing into a wolf or hawk, the women into a cat or swan; to translate it into the language of our heathen time, they addict themselves to the service of Wuotan, of Frouwa (Grimm 1093).

Thus, the significance of werewolves in Teutonic mythology can be traced to Woden-Odin worship. Woden-Odin was often pictured with two wolves or hunting hounds, Geri and Freki, besides him. Because wolves were considered sacred to Odin, it is little surprise that the Teutons attributed supernatural powers and therianmorphic attributes to them (Guerber 24). However, the wolf was not the only animal associated with therianmorphosis; the bear also was a significant animal represented in therianmorphic mythologies.

The importance of bears in the therianmorphic mythologies of the Icelanders is not surprising as bears were "considered rational, and held in high esteem" (Grimm 1097). In addition, bears were significant to Odin. He was the patron of a warrior cult of berserkers "bare shirt" or "bear shirt." Berserkers may be connected with pagan bear cults of pre-Christian Scandinavia (Byock). There is some debate as to the exact meaning of berserker:

The berserker, as a mark of ferocity and invincibility, are said to have fought without needing armor. The word, however, may also mean "bear-shirt," reflective of the shape and nature of the bear assumed by these warriors. More literally, it may refer to protective bearskins that such warriors may have worn into battle. When the "berserker rage" was upon him, a berserker was thought of as a sort of "were-bear" (or werewolf), part man, part beast, who was neither fully human nor fully animal (Byock).

The significance of the berserkers in the Icelandic sagas further illustrates the importance of therianmorphosis in the Icelandic folklore. In fact, Bjorn, the central character in "The Story of Bothvar," is connected to the berserkers. Bjorn's association with the berserkers is illustrated through his therianmorphosis during Hrolf's final battle; Bjorn appears in the form of a bear. Like the beserkers, Bjorn seems invulnerably and assumes the appearance of a bear (Byock) Furthermore, Biörn was a side-name of Thôrr, and Welsh legend presents king Arthur as a bear and a god..." (Grimm 668). The significance of therianmorphosis and were-bear mythologies had for the Icelanders are apparent when considering the numerous types of therianmorphosis in "The Story of Bothvar."

In "The Story of Bothvar," the first case of therianmorphosis results from an evil curse; Bjorn's step-mother transforms him into a were-bear. The therianmorphosis of Bjorn is similar to those represented in Teutonic werewolf mythologies; because like the werewolf, Bjorn is forced to spend half of his time in the complete form of a bear and the other half of his time as a man. Bjorn and Bera, his lover, are devastated by the curse: "They were their for a while in the cave, for so long as she had any say in the matter, she would not part form him; but he held that it was not seemly for her to stay with him, because he was a beast by day though a man by night" (265). Therefore, Bjorn undergoes a complete physical therianmorphosis; he literally becomes a bear.

Jacob Grimm discusses the correlation between therianmorphosis and enchantment in Teutonic folklore when he writes: "These metamorphoses are either voluntary or compulsory: the higher being in his might puts on the animal shape that suits him, or he dooms a man to wear it in punishment or vengeance. In the stories, a mother-in-law or stepmother that performs the curse" (Grimm 1093). The situations described by Jacob Grimm mirror the events surrounding Bjorn's therianmorphosis.

When Queen White's sexual proposition is rejected by her stepson, she becomes infuriated and curses him. She does this by striking him with wolf-skin gloves and voicing her curse:

She now struck him with her wolf-skin gloves, declaring he should become a cave-bear, fierce and savage. You shall enjoy no other food than your father's stock, and of that you shall kill for your meat more than has ever been heard of. You shall never win free of this enchantment, and this my momento will prove harder on you than nothing. (265)

In the above passage, therianmorphosis results from an evil enchantment or curse. There are two aspects of the above curse. First, Queen White physically attacks Bjorn with animal-skin gloves. Essentially, Queen White transfers the animal essence to Bjorn through the gloves. Second, Queen White vocal curse is used to reveal the specifications of the curse; namely, she specifies that Bjorn will become a cave-bear and be forced to eat exclusively from his father's stock. Jacob Grimm relates a similar tell in which there is a "striking with wolf's glove, by which a person is turned into a bear, and wears the animal form by day, the human at night. In a similar way the notion of werewolves also gets mixed up with that of outlaws who have fled to the woods" (Grimm 1095). In the same way, Queen White's curse turns Bjorn into an outlaw.

The outlaw symbolism apparent in Bjorn's transformation illustrates important views culture view held by medieval Icelanders, connecting the wolf to the outlaw. According to Mary R. Gerstein, wolves were commonly associated with outlaws: "Anglo-Norman law stated that an outlaw would be held to be a wolf and...be proclaimed wolf's-head" (qtd. in Stone). The association of the wolf with the outlaw, or thief can be connected to the importance of domestic animals in the Icelandic diet. Susan Johnson explains that Icelanders depended on domestic animals: "Domestic animals were kept for milk, meat, horn, wool, and leather. Domestic birds were kept for meat and eggs. Wild animals, birds, fish and sea mammals were hunted for their meat, horn, and leather" (Johnson). In "Sheep and Goats" in Norse Paganism, Archeologist Kristian Jennbert discusses the importance of domestic animals in the lives of the Norsemen: "Herds of sheep and goats were valuable sources of subsistence during the Scandinavian prehistory. Work with animal husbandry goes on in annual cycles. Milk, meat, wool and the whole of bodies can be used for all kinds of purposes. In short, the animals had a great value for the struggle to survival in the utilization of the available resources of the landscape" (Jennbert 162). The fact that wolves were often associated with the thievery and the murder of livestock explains their association with outlaws. In the harsh lands of the Vikings, wolves were feared because of their power to destroy their livelihood (domesticated animals) and held sacred because of their association with Odin and his warrior cult. Furthermore, the connection between wolves and outlaws can be seen in legal codes, and it illustrates the importance of therianmorphic philosophies and Teutonic beliefs in medieval culture:

It is suggested that the use of the warg and its variants in Germanic legal codes, as a condemnation, originally was a magico-legal pronouncement which transformed the criminal into a werewolf worthy of strangulation. The traditional method for disposing of outlaws was hanging, a punishment that is only a minor variation on strangulation. This was the prescribed way of sacrificing to Odin. [...] Odin is known as Hangaguth, 'God of the Hanged'; in Old English, Old Saxon, and Old Norse, the gallows is known as the 'warg-tree.' (Stone)

The above passage illustrates the symbolic connection between the wolf and outlaw typically presented in the Icelandic sagas of the Medieval Ages and traditional Teutonic folklore. However, therianmorphosis in Norse traditions is not limited to full physical were-bear and were-wolf transformations.

The second case of therianmorphosis in "The Story of Bothvar" results from Bera's consumption of Bjorn's enchanted bear flesh, and it illustrates a very different type of therianmorphosis. Bjorn prophesies his death and warns his lover not to consume the bear flesh. He does this when he says, "The queen will be suspicious of you when you plan to be off, and she will give you some of the bear's flesh to eat, but on no account must you eat it, for you are a woman with child, as well you know, and you will give birth to three boys who will be ours, and it will be apparent from them whether you eat of the bear's flesh, for this queen is the greatest troll" (266). However, although Bera tries to resist Queen White's offer of the bear meat, the Queen forces her to consume it: "She cut off a mouthful for her, and the outcome of it all was that she ate that mouthful. Then the queen carved her another piece and pushed it into her mouth, and one small grain of this mouthful too went down, but the rest she spat out, vowing she would eat no more even though she tortured or killed her" (268).In the case of Bera, her consumption of the enchanted meat during her pregnancy leads to the therianmorphosis of her unborn children:

A little later she was taken ill and gave birth to a son, though of a rather strange kind. He was a man above, but an elk from the navel down, and was given the name Elgfrothi. A second son was born and called Thorir. He had hound's feet on him from the instep, and for that reason was called Thorir Houndsfoot, though for the rest he was the most handsome of men. Then the third son was born, who was the likeliest-looking of them all. He was called Bothvar and on him there was no blemish. (269)

As a result of their mother's consumption of Bjorn, Elgfrothi and Thorir are transformed in the womb into man-beasts. However, their therianmorphosis is markedly different from that of their father. Unlike their father, they are only partially transformed; they become creatures that have physical characteristics of both humankind and animals. Thus, their therianmorphosis is physical and the result of their mother's consumption of enchanted animal flesh.

In "The Story of Bothvar," the third case of therianmorphosis results from drinking the blood of an enchanted creature and presents a spiritual therianmorphosis. Bothvar and his timid companion, Hott set out to attack a dragon-like creature that has ravished the king's lands. The narrator describes the creature saying, "It has wings on its back, and flies at all times" (282). After killing the creature, Bothvar demands Hott to drink the creature's blood: "For a long time he was unwilling, yet just as surely he dared not do otherwise. Bothvar made him drink tow big mouthfuls. He also made him and they struggled together for a long time" (28). When he drinks the blood of the enchanted creature, Hott begins his therianmorphosis. Bothvar remarks on Hott's transformation when he says: "You are now grown pretty strong," Bothvar told him, "and I do not believe you will now stand in fear of king Hrolf's retainers (283). Thus, Hott's transformation is very different from the previous therianmorphosises discussed. Hott's therianmorphosis is spiritual rather than physical; he becomes infused with the spirit of the animal. King Hrolf comments on this change in Hott saying: '"I do not know,"' said the king, "'from what source this courage has come to you, Hott, but there has been a big change in you in a short time'" (284). After drinking the blood, Hott is no longer a coward and his change of temperament is quickly recognized by the king. King Hrolf addresses this change again saying: "What can one say," replied the king, "except that there has been an even greater change in your temper than yet appears? Few indeed could claim to know you for the same man" (284). Thus, the therianmorphosis of Hott results from drinking the blood of a supernatural creature, and his transformation is manifested spiritually rather than physically. Unlike the other therianmorphosises discussed, Hott does not display any physical traits of the creature; instead, he is filled with the spirit of the creature. Hence, Hott becomes a great champion filled with the courage and daring of the creature whose blood he consumed.

The theme of therianmorphosis is an important aspect of the Sagas of the Icelanders. For example, the berserks undergo a spiritual therianmorphosis in battle; they were believed to enter into a trance-like state before battle. In this state, the berserks became filled with the spirit of the bear or wolf, becoming fierce and courageous warriors. The therianmorphosis of the berserks is much like that of Hott; both the berserks and Hott take on the temperament or spirit of an animal. "The Story of Bothvar" from the saga, King Hrolf and His Champions illustrates the many different origins, forms, and types of therianmorphosis found in Icelandic Sagas. The numerous types of therianmorphosis found in the Icelandic Sagas bring to light the importance animals and supernatural creatures played in Icelandic folklore and mythology. Animals such as the bear, wolf, and boar were considered extremely powerful by the Icelandic peoples and repeatedly appear in their sagas. Thus, it is no surprise that supernatural creatures like were-bears, were-wolves, and other man-beasts held a special place in the pagan mythologies and folklores of the Icelanders. In "The Story of Bothvar" from the Icelandic Saga, King Hrolf and His Champions, the fact that many different origins and types of therianmorphosis exist in Icelandic sagas is illustrated through the diverse transformations of Bjorn, Elgfrothi, Thorir, and Hott.

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