Intelligence Theories

What is the definition of the term intelligence? Reasoning abilities? Adaptability? Potential? Creativity? Innovativeness? Aptitude? Learning speed? Street smarts?...the answer is: all of them and none of them. Society uses the word intelligence quite carelessly; but who can be blamed when its definition is so ambiguous. This problem was brought to light at the end of the 19^th century-inspired by Charles Darwin's "survival of the fittest" idea; one level of the giant spectrum that is his Theory of evolution examines the existence of an intrinsic degree of general mental ability that we have referred to ever since as "intelligence." Binet and Simon, in 1905, devised the first test of intelligence that still stands time (with slight revisions). In addition to these two innovators, Terman, Spearman, Cattell, Piaget, Sternberg and Gardner are among the most influential contributors (and definitely not the only!) to the process of reaching a consensus as to how to measure and define intelligence.

Alfred Binet defined intelligence in terms of being able to understand and make reasonable judgments. With the help of his associate Theodore Simon, a groundbreaking sequence of 30 short tests were introduced as the first attempt at the psychometric quantification of "intelligence." Lewis Terman and others added adaptability and abstract thinking to Binet's working definition. These starting points paved the way for a stream of grand-scale theoretical and conceptual approaches to the topic: psychometric, developmental, and information processing theories provide frameworks for definitions that are progressively complete and concise.

Charles Spearman, in 1927, is the psychologist that formally started the psychometric trend by standardizing scores of already established intelligence tests through factor analysis. This allowed for comparisons of scores across individuals and groups by age, culture, and demographics. Spearman, however, did not meddle much with the individual scoring method introduced by Binet's and Simon's "intelligence quotient" (IQ) ratio of mental age (aptitude) and chronological age (length of life), It was James Cattell (1963) that recognized the need for more specific categories of measurement of intelligence; he introduced the terms fluid intelligence (problem-solving) and crystallized intelligence(applied from experience). The Cattell-Horn-Carrol (CHC) theory of intelligence is an ever elaborated and highly supported extension of Cattell's idea (it has evolved to also include visual-spatial thinking abilities in its overall calculation of general intelligence or "g").

Jean Piaget, who famously studied and documented his own children's development, officially became the father of developmental theories of intelligence around 1972 with his ideas of cognitive accommodation, assimilation and schemas. A child's ability to assimilate new ideas offered by his or her environment and then further accommodate those new ideas into thought schemas (mental frameworks) was, to him, a way of presupposing the child's potential for success and mature mental growth.

Information processing theories are among the most popular views of intelligence. Robert Sternberg, who was driven by his own low scores on intelligence tests, offered a Triarchic theory in 1982 that took into account componential (acquired rote knowledge), experiential (innovation) and contextual (street smarts) abilities. Sternberg's new angle considered intelligence as conjunctive with personality. Howard Gardner'sTheory of multiple intelligences(1983, 1993), another information processing approach, focused on perceptual, memory and learning processes. He reasoned that type of intelligence varied among individuals and that traditional intelligence tests only considered three of his seven types: linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial intelligence. The other four neglected forms include musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence.

Today's view of intelligence considers all of the above while adding a more humanistic aspect to the big picture. All humans have intrinsic and unique abilities that can be developed (however large or small-scale this ability or these abilities may be). Gardner, specifically, seems to have grasped and communicated this idea in a brilliant and concise manner (in his book Creating Minds, he chooses a historical representative of each of his intelligence types. Definitely deserves a look if you are interested in this topic).

In any case, earlier theories of intelligence ignored the specific and perhaps immeasurable abilities that can gain a person the status of one who is "intelligent." This can be a problem in that it is discouraging for those who have little interest in traditional intelligence factors while also gaining little praise on that which could develop into creative strength if realized. Another problem: the tests we continue to use today (Binet-Simon IQ tests) were formatted during a white, educated, male-dominated era; fortunately, modern day intelligence researchers are much more considerate of socio-economic status, sex differences, and cultural influences that might affect scores to the point of the misrepresentation of an individual's or group's strengths, abilities and potential.