Lifelong Learning

In spite of a complete definition, self-directed learning is frequently regarded as self-learning in which learners have the responsibility for preparing, implementing, and assessing their own learning experiences (Ellinger, 2004). Self-directed learning can be characterized as planned learning in which the individual's main purpose is to, "gain certain definite knowledge or skills," (Cross, 1992, p.125). According to Knowles (as cited in Dunlap, 2005) self-directed learning is the process in which individuals take the first step, with or without the help of others, in identifying their learning needs, devising learning goals, recognizing resources for learning, selecting and employing learning strategies, and assessing learning outcomes. The main purpose of self-directed learning then is to satisfy the learner. The following will identify common characteristics exhibited by self-directed learners, as well as, strategies to enhance these qualities. Also, several aspects of self-directed learning will also be considered, specifically, the scope and meaning of self-directed study, the dimensions of self-direction, the theoretical insights on self-direction, and the potential advantages of self-direction in adult learning. Lastly, opportunities for adults to overcome the most common barriers to lifelong learning will be addressed.

Common characteristics exhibited by self-directed learners
One of the main characteristics of self-directed learners is self-directedness. Brockett and Himestra (as cited in Ellinger, 2004) recognize that personal accountability is the foundation of self-directed learning. Self-directed learners will have various levels of willingness to assume responsibility for themselves as learners and that self-directedness takes place on a continuum.

Readiness is also a characteristic of self-directed learners. Guglielmino (as cited in Ellinger, 2004) devised a readiness scale to measure the attitudes and skills frequently related with the idea of readiness. The eight factors included in this scale are: (a) open mind toward learning opportunities, (b) self thoughts as a successful learner, (c) ambition and self-reliance in learning, (d) knowledgeable recognition of responsibility for one's own learning, (e) love of learning, (f) originality, (g) future direction, and (h) skill to use basic study and problem-solving skills. Although this scale has been commonly used it has produced disagreements and disapproval regarding issues of dependability and validity (Ellinger, 2004).

Autonomy has also been established as a characteristic of self-directed learning. Autonomous learners are usually considered independent, capable of making choices and important decisions, and have the aptitude to express standards and limits of a learning society (Ellinger, 2004). According to Merriam and Caffarella (as cited in Ellinger, 2004) there are four aspects that could influence the extent to which learners demonstrate autonomous performance in learning situations: (a) technical skills associated with the learning process, (b) knowledge of the subject, (c) awareness of personal abilities as a learner, and (d) dedication to learning at that specific point in time.

There are various characteristics of a self-directed learner, others in addition to those previously mentioned include, an aptitude for learners to recognize their learning desires, a positive outlook of their learning abilities established from previous experience, the ability to set suitable goals, skill in choosing learning strategies or to formulate new strategies for a specific circumstance, the capacity to be self-motivated and self-disciplined, the flexibility to establish objectives and select learning strategies, understanding of how they learn as well as their learning strengths and weaknesses, and knowledge and skill in learning (Robotham, 1995).

Strategies to enhance exhibited characteristics
An essential element of self-directed learning is to ensure that the student is involved with a curriculum or learning environment that permits self-directed learning to take place (Connor, 2004). There are several strategies to enhance exhibited characteristics of self-directed learners, which include, the student having a choice in the manner in which the subject matter is established and explored. Students should also have some choice in demonstrating how knowledge has been attained in the subject matter. According to Abdullah (as cited in Connor, 2004) educators should also increase understanding of students' role in their own learning. There should be a shift of responsibility for learning from the educator to the learner, not that learning takes place in isolation, but the elements that the student has control over such as: effort put into learning, note taking, self-efficacy, and self-regulation.

Educators can also enhance self-directed learners characteristics by supporting study skills, investigation, inquiry, and by providing an environment where inaccuracies are acceptable throughout the learning process. Educators can enhance self-directed learning by providing opportunities for students to monitor and revise their work, and contemplate their thinking and learning methods. Journals and study groups within the classroom can accomplish this. Also, problem-based and project-based learning should be strong elements in self-directed learning, as well as, teamwork and collaboration (Connor, 2004).

Scope, meaning, and dimension of self-directed learning
The possible scope of subject matter is unlimited in self-directed learning. Coolican (as cited in Cross, 1992) notes that the most common learning projects frequently included vocational topics, home and family, as well as hobbies and recreation. Adult learners are very practical with a majority of them selecting how-to-do-it projects. According to Tough (as cited in Cross, 1992) most adult learning is initiated due to a problem or other responsibility. Knowles (as cited in Cross, 1992) also notes this concept, adult learners engage in learning largely due to incompetence in managing life problems. Self-directed learning is often learning of relevance and immediate use; as a result, any individual can be a self-directed learner. Research supports the idea that adults who want to learn normally do so in order to solve a problem and not necessarily to learn about a particular subject (Cross, 1992). However, one concept is clear regarding self-directed learning, the learner maintains control over the subject matter to be learned, how the subject matter is learned, as well as when and where the subject matter is learned. According to Morris (as cited in Cross, 1992) there is an order to self-directed learning: explanation of the problem, recognizing the need to learn, formation of objectives, and recognizing dependable resources.

Although self-directed learning is focused on the individual learner, this does not mean that they learner works in isolation. Self-directed learning often involves interaction with other individuals. Tough (as cited in Cross, 1992) notes that adult learners often obtain knowledge, suggestions, and support, from other individuals. One of the main obstacles in self-directed learning is obtaining knowledgeable assistance. The self-directed learner may become frustrated or confused when an individual or resource does not project the help the learner anticipated.

According to John Seely Brown (as cited in Rogers, 2004) individuals should become self-directed learners due to the fast rate of change, continual formation of new knowledge, and expanded access to knowledge. It is necessary for individuals to be self-directed learners to make better use of the knowledge they already have and have access to. In an ever- changing workplace being a self-directed learner allows individuals to be responsive and adaptable. However, the learning has to be significant to individual's wants and needs (Rogers, 2004).

Theoretical insights
Maslow (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) proposed a hierarchy of needs model based on human motivation in respects to humanistic theory. Individuals pass through stages in a specific order: physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization. In considering self-directed learning the stage of self-actualization is important. According to Maslow (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) self-actualization can be explained by the "use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities, etc." (p. 126). This stage can be associated with self-directed learning since self-actualization is the highest level of human growth that individuals can attain. According to Maslow (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) self-actualizers are individuals who acquire self-understanding and insight, continuously strive toward higher levels of personal growth, and maintain personal responsibility which are all possible elements to understanding self-directed learners.

Another theorist in the humanistic approach is Rogers (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) and his client-centered method, which emphasizes the importance of individuals taking responsibility for their own lives. Rogers (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) notes that self-direction can be defined as an individual choosing and learning from the consequences. As in self-directed learning, individuals maintain control over their learning. In the humanistic approach there are several concepts that apply to self-directed learning, these include: the focus is on the self-directed learner, the subject matter of the self-directed learning is specific, the self-directed learner is motivated by the need to succeed, previous knowledge and experience are of importance, and self-directed learners identify with their own style of learning (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).

The behaviorist theory also influences self-directed learning. Watson and Tharp (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) propose that skills necessary for self-directed learning are closely related to the process of self-modification. The association between an individual and the environment is perhaps the strongest collaboration between self-directed learning and the behaviorist theory. In contrast, humanistic theory only views internal elements when self-directed learning is clearly influenced by the environment (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).

Transformation theory, particularly the work of Mezirow, proposes that individuals learn not only by adding new knowledge to existing knowledge but the principles and beliefs under which an individual functions are modified through the process of learning. Mezirow (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) proposes that self-directed learning inspires the process of perspective transformation: "Enhancing the learner's ability for self direction in learning as a foundation for a distinctive philosophy of adult education has breadth and power. It represents the mode of learning characteristic of adulthood." (p. 129). Mezirow (as cited in Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) suggests the following guidelines for self-directed learners: reduce the learner's reliance on the educator, aid the learning to utilize learning resources, support the learner in identify learning needs, aid learners in assuming responsibility for their learning, planning and evaluating of their learning objectives, and assist in problem solving.

In consideration of constructivist theory, Candy (as cited in Percival, 1996) proposes that constructivism is suited with self-directed learning since self-directed learning emphasizes the shared characteristics of inquiry and independence. Adult learners are able to outline their own decisions reflecting on alternatives, and able to formulate responsible knowledgeable decisions (Percival, 1996).

Individuals should be considered the center of adult education. The individual who is competent to endeavor in the direction of understanding potential, in relation to self-direction in learning, will also be more and more capable to add to the formation of a more just society; in which each individual has the opportunity to make the most of their potential (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).

Advantages of self-directed adult learning
Self-directed learning is an individual quest that requires a personal belief of autonomy and self-management. Individuals assume the initiative, select the subject matter, establish the learning method and manage the rate of learning (Shannon, 2000). Self-directed learning is valuable because it is centered on the learner and develops on the individual's prior experience and because what is learned is obtained through active participation and is incorporated into practice.

Self-directed learning is advantageous to adult learners since individuals outline their own needs and objectives, prepare and document learning activities, obtain the knowledge or skills to focus on their own needs and objectives, evaluate the significance of the knowledge and skills, use the knowledge or skills, consider and assess the value to practice, and recognize the course of the learning process (Shannon, 2000).

Opportunities for adults to overcome barriers to lifelong learning
Lifelong learning is deliberate, focused learning that individuals involve themselves in throughout their lives to increase personal satisfaction and develop the quality of their lives (Dunlap, 2005). The objective of expanding participation and creating opportunities for adults to overcome barriers to lifelong learning requires a solution of removing barriers and obstacles for those learners. Some of these barriers might include age, educational background, and socio-economic group. McGivney (as cited in Norman & Hyland, 2003) proposes other possible barriers to learning, these include: situational, time obtainable for attendance and the cost of learning, institutional, educational organizations insensitive to the needs of adult learner as far as learning strategies, teaching methods, and inadequate publicity concerning learning opportunities, and dispositional, attitudes and motivations of the learner.

The increased flexibility of educational organizations as well as methods intended to aid disadvantaged learners has aided some adult learners in overcoming some barriers to learning (Norman & Hyland, 2003). However, dispositional barriers continue to impede adult learner participation, especially individuals in groups where learning is not valued. Educators are now trying to attempt to confront these barriers by enhancing the quality of learning assistance and guidance. The barriers typically associated in this area are low self-esteem, anxiety, and lack of confidence; all are essential elements to learning (Norman & Hyland, 2003). Confidence has been distinguished both as a trait and as a notion to a specific circumstance. Consequently, if an individual lacks confidence as a trait and there is little educators can do to enhance the learner's confidence. However, if the lack of confidence is circumstance specific, confidence can be increased or decreased depending upon the circumstances (Norman & Hyland, 2003). According to Manning and Ray (as cited in Norman & Hyland, 2003) enhancing confidence can have a lasting influence on learners, which includes: involvement in the learning process, increase in motivation, acceptance of new situation, and accepting more responsibility.

Conclusion
Self-directed learning can be perceived as a process in which the learner initiates learning, identifies their own goals for learning, devises learning goals, selects and employs learning strategies, and evaluates the outcomes of learning (Dunlap, 2005). As can be formulated from the preceding information there are several characteristics of self-directed learners and strategies to enhance these qualities. Several other aspects pertaining to self-directed learning were addressed namely, the scope, meaning, and dimensions pertaining to self-directed learning. Also, possible barriers and opportunities to overcome the most common barriers were discussed as well as theoretical insights to self-directed learning.

Accountability, responsibility, readiness and control are the foundation of self-directed learning and may encourage the additional and continuous use of lifelong learning skills (Dunlap, 2005). Lifelong learners are capable of learning and adjusting because they consider the quality of their understanding and extend further than what they already know (Dunlap, 2005).

References

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