Looking at the History and Intertwining of English-French-American Journalism

The problems of journalism are, at base, philosophical problems. They involve questions of definition and function: What is news? What is truth? How can one know Truth? These are the recurring and unstated issues behind most journalism disputes. Yet, when it comes to this matter of philosophy, publishers, editors, broadcasters and journalism educators are virtually unanimous in their conviction that any theories about journalism should take second place to the hard reality of practice. -Dennis Chase, The Aphilosophy of Journalism

A close reading of thinkers of the English Enlightenment and the French Philosophes in relationship to the Founding Fathers suggests that it was the combination of the two European cultures as read in the context of the New World which created a singular American notion of journalism. American reporting would be vastly different than it is today if the influence has come only from one tradition.

This exam will explain how the thinkers of these periods influenced American journalism through the history of its development as well as today. The English thinkers will be discussed first with some comparison and mention of the thinkers they inspired. Then the French thinkers will be discussed, and again, there will be some comparison and mention of the thinkers they inspired. The exam will conclude with a discussion on how the thinkers are apparent in modern American journalism.

American journalism is a product of the thoughts and philosophies of many different men and women throughout history. The Founding Fathers of America had to pick and choose what they wanted their new country to have instilled in its foundation so the country had a solid base on which to flourish. Men such as Franklin, Jefferson, Madison and Paine all looked at and considered the ideas that came out of other societies, such as Britain and France. They built their new empire on the ideas of men such as Locke, Hobbes, Montesquieu and Voltaire, among others, to create a sound foundation in which citizens could express themselves and not fear for their freedom. The American system is a conglomeration of the greatest ideas brought to light by great thinkers of all times.

The English thinkers were some of the first to deal with ideas that would later influence and extend to the press. Milton, Hobbes, Locke, Hume and Burke are just five men that produced important and beneficial ideas and philosophies that would become an incorporated part of the American belief system. In Britain, religion was the major reason that printing and publishing came to be. Gutenberg's Bible was printed so people could read the written word, as well as translated and sent abroad so the natives there could be "saved". The church held complete power over what was printed and what wasn't for a long period of time because the majority of what was printed was religious-themed. Anything deemed unacceptable was also considered unlawful. Soon, the power over censorship shifted from church to state, when the crown took on the power to decide what could be printed and what could not. This is when public opinion became important in politics. The government was seen as playing primarily a negative role and it was up to man to inform himself. There was no place for public service, and with that, men began challenging the state, which resulted in the English Enlightenment.

John Milton (1608-1674) was one of the few men, as well as one of the first, to question the authority of the state. He wrote many works that were filled with ideas that were new and radical to the time. In his work Areopatica, he challenged censorship. Milton believed there were three types of freedoms that were essential in order to find happiness: religious, domestic, and civil. He ultimately believed that man was good and reasonable.

The most important freedom for Milton was the preservation political liberty. He felt that no matter what, people should be able to some say in politics. He came up with the self-righting principle, which is the belief that when truth and falsehood compete with each other, truth will inherently win. He felt that people would be able to see the truth if only it was explained to them and it was reasonable and best for the public good. Milton wrote:

Where there is much desire to learn, there of necessity will be much arguing, much writing, many opinions; for opinions in good men is but knowledge in the making (40).

He came up with the concept of a marketplace of ideas, where information was disclosed to the public so they could actually see for themselves what was going on and decide for themselves.

Many of Milton's ideas were used and viewed again and again throughout history. Other English thinkers, as well as French thinkers, based their ideas on those Milton had already established. The Founding Fathers definitely employed Milton and his philosophies when drawing up the Bill of Rights and Declaration of Independence. America has it's three inalienable rights that all citizens know by heart, which are based up on Milton's three freedoms. Americans are equally aware of the phrase, "truth will prevail" in the justice system. Again, this comes from Milton. Franklin followed the same line of thinking on this topic as Milton, and Milton's ideas are prevalent in the American belief system today.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was another man who was one of the first to state his views against the wishes of the crown. Hobbes and Milton were each other's contemporaries, but their belief systems were very different. Where Milton was an optimist, Hobbes was a cynic. He didn't think that man was capable of governing themselves or able to see reason. In fact, he viewed man as savage and unprincipled. The only way to keep man in check was to have an authority that had absolute power, preferably a monarchy.

Hobbes wrote the Leviathan in 1651, and it became his best known work. In it, he explained his theory of a social contract, which would be used again by other men in their philosophies and was a major factor in the formation of American philosophy. He tried to apply physical sciences to social studies and developed the concept of desire and aversion. Desire is that the people want and what leads to the good of the total being. Aversion is what people want to avoid and what leads to death. Politically, Hobbes felt that the people wanted to keep the peace and stay out of war, since he lived through the English Civil War, and felt that it was the state's duty to keep that peace and the citizens should be obedient to the state because of that. However, man had to consent to the covenant made between himself and state and submit his will. This is the origin of utilitarianism.

Hobbes was most concerned with self-preservation, and with this, he condemned democracy. Although American ended up being a democratic nation, some of his ideas were still influential. Hobbes coined the term "voice of the people" which is a well-known phrase today. He didn't buy into truth and falsehood, like Milton did, because he believed that they didn't make a difference. The only universal was names.

Without names, without words, without language, there can be no truth or falsehood, for the words true and false have no intrinsic meaning; they are not attributes of things but rather of speech. Thus, if there is no language, there can be no untruth (45).

John Locke (1632-1704) was the man who had the most influence on the Declaration of Independence. The Founding Fathers took his philosophies to heart the most when drafting together the main framework of America's belief system. He had two basic beliefs that became elements in the American belief system. One is the contract theory, in which the government thrives under the consent of the governed. The other is the right of revolution, in which it is the right and duty of the governed to rise up against tyrannical leadership. From these two elements comes the foundation of the most basic and fundamental civil liberties on which American journalism is centered: the freedom to say what we want, and the freedom to print and publish our opinions and beliefs.

For Locke, the most important ingredient of society was private property. When someone owned property, that meant they had full citizenship and could participate in politics. The more people that had property, the more people that could participate in government. However, Locke believed that man is entitled to the benefits of his own labor, and if he raised himself up in society through work, that was better than being born into high society. Through man's own experiences, knowledge was gained. Man gains knowledge either by way of deduction (comes from outside of us), or induction (comes from inside of us). He believed that majority rule is the cornerstone of all political order, which is how American politics is set up. The importance of property also extends to journalism though because from this concept came the concept of reporters as watchdogs over lawmakers and executives.

Locke had the biggest impact on the American belief system because the majority of his main ideas were implemented into use by the Founding Fathers. They made the most sense in a democratic society in which the citizens have a significant say in how they are governed. He wanted to avoid conflict as much as possible, and the laws of the American system are set up primarily to do that.

David Hume (1711-1776) was a skeptic. He believed that we can never know anything for certain, even what we see and hear. All we can ever know are probabilities. He saw the state of nature as "a mere fiction". Like Hobbes, he was a nominalist and dismissed abstract ideas altogether. Hume basically had a difficult time believing anything that couldn't be proven for fact, and even then he couldn't be sure. The best he could do was draw a conclusion. He felt that government was necessary to curb selfish impulses and to make them work to benefit all. The concept that speaks out the most to American audiences is that of values being determined by individual cases. In American society, although there is a general concept of values, mostly values are seen as a result of one's background and part of one's personal identity, which is a bit ironic since Hume didn't know if there was such a thing as a personal identity.

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a pessimist who believed in the virtues of tradition and religion. He thought that freedom should be limited. But when the colonies began rising up against the mother country, he supported the colonies. In his pamphlet titled, Thoughts on the Case of the Present Discontents (1770), he made it clear that he felt King George's actions were against the spirit of the constitution. Once the French Revolution came about, he opposed revolution altogether, though. He felt there was a need for government to be continual and stable. As far as Burke's philosophies go, the Founding Fathers didn't dwell on them, but he's important nonetheless because he supported the colonies in their plight for freedom.

While the English thinkers were more concentrated on political aspects, the French thinkers were more focused on the social. The French thinkers used less direct intellectual statements than the English thinkers did. Instead, they were broader, more speculative abstractions. The French ideas were more radical in nature and were firmly planted in the minds of literate America and thus, became associated with the civil liberties in the American Bill of Rights. Because of that, it entered into the American journalist's belief system as well, as can be seen in the following:

The free communication of thoughts and opinions is one of man's most precious rights. Every citizen may therefore speak, write, and publish freely, except that he shall be responsible for the abuse of that freedom in cases determined by law (93).

Montesquieu (1689-1755) wrote The Spirit of Laws (1748), which played the largest part in the Founding Fathers' creation of American institutions. He recognized the importance of social conditioning on the growth of ideas and ideals. It was Montesquieu that came up with the concept of the press taking an educational role in society. He didn't apply it to the press directly because there wasn't a press like there is today during his time, but the concept still applies.

He was aware that a democratic nation would be very appealing to the people because they would have a voice in the system. He came up with the concept of checks and balances to keep the different parts of the government in check so no one became too powerful. With this, the press would become the "fourth estate" and act as a watchdog to the other branches of the government, keeping everyone honest and on their toes. The only way democracy would prevail however, is if there was freedom of expression, and if justice was used to secure the liberty of the citizens and prosperity of the nation. These are the guidelines Jefferson and Madison used when forming the American belief system.

Voltaire (1694-1778) is the man who has had the most impact on modern journalism. He can be considered the first great advocacy journalist because, like Hume, he believed you couldn't believe anything that hadn't been proven. Many of the rules that journalists follow today are because of Voltaire. He felt that attention had to be paid to detail, and that one shouldn't just list the facts. Focus on the regular man instead of just celebrities and those considered great or extraordinary. Also, use familiar words that everyone will understand instead of embellishing and using fancy language only a few will understand. He also felt that the press should remain as unbiased as possible, to be objective communicators and tell both sides of the story.

Rousseau (1712-1778) followed Voltaire's line of thought very well as far as education is concerned. He believed that education was a key element in a successful society. People need to be educated so can see what is needed and given understanding. The people are unconsciously aware of what is moral and good, but it is the press that is supposed to make them consciously aware. Because people's emotions are what drive them, they have to be educated in both their passions and their minds. The wisdom is in the people, and therefore, it is the journalist's job to bring that out.

The Founding Fathers definitely bought into Rousseau's philosophy when drawing up the Federalist Papers. These were used as propaganda to win support among the states for the ratification of the Constitution. In a sense, they educated the colonies in order to gain the support needed. They inspired their passions as well as their minds. Madison was the main person responsible for the Federalist Papers, and Rousseau was surely an influence.

"In establishing American independence, the pen and the press had a merit equal to the sword" (103). Because American press was so new and innovative during the American Revolution, press ideology was developed as a product of actual experience. All the theories and philosophies from England and France were experimented with and by the time Madison, Jefferson, Franklin and Paine sat down to draw the papers up on which the entire American belief system is based, they had figured out what they wanted to include and what they didn't. The press served as the voice of the people and freedom of expression was critical for the perseverance of the infant nation.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was unbiased in his printing and printed both views and opinions. Franklin was more interested in opinions however, than actual news. He felt that man's opinions were just as valuable as actual facts. It was because of this that he believed that people shouldn't be punished for what they published. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was an upholder that certain truths were held to be self-evident. His belief system was based on a conglomeration of other people's beliefs. He believed that in certain instances man can base actions on natural laws, he believed in the merit system, and he believed in the self-righting principle. Thomas Paine (1739-1809) wrote Common Sense which called upon the colonies to rise up in rebellion against Britain as the defense of rights against man.

Each of these Founding Fathers pulled ideas from the English thinkers and French thinkers and put them together like a puzzle to create their own philosophies and belief system to guide the new country. Today, most of these philosophies are still in place and have been reinterpreted to meet modern standards. The press today still operates under most of these beliefs and will continue to do so into the future.

Chase, Dennis J. "The Aphilosophy of Journalism." The Quill 59 (Sept 1971), 16.