Mahayana: The Buddhism of Bodhisattvas

Today, the Buddhist world is commonly divided into two traditions: Mahayana and Theravada. The Theravada (an early sect that developed in Ceylon around 240 B.C.) is associated with Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, and it is often referred to as "Path of the Elders" (Robinson and Johnson 219). This tradition is often thought of as the older, more conservative branch of Buddhism, and it focuses on "individual enlightenment and the monastic discipline" (Elwood & McGraw 149). The other great Buddhist tradition, the Mahayana is associated with Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and it is commonly referred to as "The Great Vehicle or Course" (Robinson and Johnson 216). This tradition developed between 100 B.C. and 100 A.D., and it challenged traditional Buddhist thought (Robinson and Johnson 87). Central to the schism between these two Buddhist traditions is the Mahayana devotion to the bodhisattva ideal. Although both the Theravada and Mahayana accept the bodhisattva ideal, the Mahayana tradition is distinctive because it alone is asserts that the bodhisattva path is open to all, provides a specific path for aspiring bodhisattvas to pursue, and accepts a wide-range of scriptural sources that proclaim a innovative pantheon of extraordinary and responsive bodhisattvas.

Traditionally, there are three yanas (classes or courses) distinguishable in Buddhist tradition: cravaka-yana, pratyekabuddha-yana, and bodhisattva-yana (Suzuki 9). A cravaka is a disciple of a Buddha. The cravaka (Slavaka) or "hearer" is unable to attain enlightenment on his own. However, because he believes in the teachings of the Buddha and observes all moral and religious precepts, he realizes Nirvana (unconditioned reality) (Suzuki 9). In contrast, the pratyekabuddha is an introverted philosopher; he develops his intellect and realizes Nirvana for himself (Suzuki 9). Both the pratyekabuddha and cravaka strive for and attain individual enlightenment (Nirvana). In contrast, a bodhisattva is one who vows to realize Nirvana for the enlightenment of all beings (Suzuki 9). The bodhisattva is one who is ready for Nirvana but whose compassion is so great that he or she remains in order to lead others to Nirvana (Das 143).

The Mahayana tradition is devoted to the bodhisattva course. The Mahayanist devotion to the vehicle of the bodhisattva is apparent in the following lines from The Lotus of the Wonderful Law or the Lotus Gospel:

The Buddha appears in the world

Only for this One Reality

The other two not being real;

For never by a smaller Vehicle

(Could a Buddha) save any creature.

The Buddha himself is in the Great-Vehicle

And accordant with the Truth he has attained

Enriched by meditation and wisdom,

By, it he saves all creatures,

I, having proved the Supreme Way,

The universality of the Great Vehicle,

If, by a Small Vehicle, I converted

Were it but one human being,

I should fall into grudging selfishness,

A thing that cannot be (Soothill 72-73)

In this section, the Buddha is surrounded by a host of bodhisattvas (the cravakas and pratyekabuddhas have entered Nirvana or left conditioned reality), and he explains that only they (the remaining bodhisattvas) have the power to comprehend his message. Essentially, this Mahayanist gospel explains that although the buddha has preached three vehicles or pathways to Nirvana, there is essentially only One Vehicle, namely the bodhisattva-yana (Soothill 15). Thus, the Mahayana tradition is essentially the Buddhism of the bodhisattvas; for Mahayanists, ultimate enlightenment is attained by commitment to the vehicle of the bodhisattva. Additionally, the above passage illustrates the Mahayanist belief that all other pathways to enlightenment are inferior to the bodhisattva path.

For Mahayanist, all Buddhists who do not follow the vehicle of the Bodhisattva are Hinayanists (Robinson and Johnson 87). Hinayana or "The Small Vehicle or Lesser Vehicle" is a term used by Mahayanists and some Historians to refer to the sects that appeared between first and fourth centuries after the death of the Buddha (Siddhârtha Gautama or Sakyamuni), including the Theravada (Robinson and Johnson 216). For Mahayanists, all Buddhists that follow the cravaka and pratyekabuddha yanas are Hinayanists. Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, illustrates this Mahayanist classification in The Buddhism of Tibet and the Key to the Middle Way when he explains:

There are two types of Hinayanists: hearers (Slavaka) and Solitary Realisers (Pratyekabuddha). Although Hearers are lower and Solitary Relaisers are higher, their basis is the same. They both practice the Hinayana doctrine of a path that serves as a method for achieving a mere liberation from cyclic existence for their own sakes." (Gyatso 28)

The above statement illuminates that for Mahayanists, the pratyekabuddhas and cravakas are adherents of Himayanism. The ultimate goal of a Hinayanists is to become an arhant or "perfected saint" (one who obtains complete enlightenment without becoming a savior of others, and who will not be reborn) (Rinpoche 39). Like Mahayana tradition, the Theravada tradition acknowledges that the greater vehicle is that of the Bodhisattva; however, unlike the Mahayanists (who assert that bodhisattva-hood is attainable by all), followers of Theravada Buddhism believe that bodhisattva-hood is exclusive to the one entity preparing to become the one Buddha (Rahula). Hence, it is not the importance placed on the bodhisattva that distinguishes Theravada tradition from Mahayana tradition; it is the Mahayanist assertion that the bodhisattva path is open to all.

In Mahayana Buddhism, all are expected to take the bodhisattva vow. In Awakening the Buddha Within, Lama Durya Das tells that Mahayanists chant the following bodhisattva vow everyday:

Sentient beings are numberless, I vow to liberate them.

Delusions are inexhaustible, I vow to transcend them.

Dharma teachings are boundless, I vow to master them

The Buddha's enlightened way is unsurpassable, I vow to embody it. (Das 143)

The above passage illustrates the Mahayanist commitment to the Bodhisattva ideal. Unlike the followers of Theravada (who believe arhant-ship is the ultimate goal and highest level attainable for a disciple of the Buddha), Mahayanists proclaim that bodhisattva-hood is the ultimate goal of Buddhism and open to all (Suzuki 311). The Lotus Sutra proclaims the Mahayanists belief that the path to bodhisattva-hood (and subsequently, the path to buddha-hood is available to all):

Know,

Of yore I made a vow,

In desire to cause all creatures

To rank equally with me.

Whene'er I meet any of the living

I teach them the Buddha-Way. (Soothill 73)

In this passage of The Lotus Gospel, Siddharta proclaims that all beings are capable of achieving bodhisattva-hood and buddha-hood, and that it should be the ultimate goal of all Buddhists to follow the bodhisattva path. This is extremely important to the Mahayanist tradition because all Mahayanists dedicate themselves to the vehicle of the bodhisattva, believing that it to be the ultimate Buddhist path.

The Mahayanist commitment to the bodhisattva ideal brought about the development of a specific series of stages that all aspiring bodhisattvas must complete (Mahayanists). The doctrine of the ten stages of bodhisattva-hood was introduced by Mahayanists between 100 and 300 A.D., and it professed that one could reach Nirvana by passing through each of the stages consecutively (Robinson & Johnson 96). In The Buddhist Religion, Robinson and Johnson state that "the ten stages of Bodhisattva-hood are (1) the joyful, (2) the stainless, (3) the illuminating, (4) the flaming, (5) the very-hard-to-conquer, (6) the face-to-face, (7) the immovable, (8) vows, (9) power, and (10) knowledge" (Robinson & Johnson 100). Mahayanists believe that upon completion of the final stage, one will have acquired the knowledge of all things, developed purity of heart, and attained absolute buddha-nature; the bodhisattva, at the final stage, is the essence of love and sympathy, and he is capable of guiding all sentient creatures to buddha-hood (Suzuki 70). Thus, the Mahayanist doctrine of the ten stages of bodhisattva-hood affirms Mahayanist commitment to the vehicle of the bodhisattva. Furthermore, the doctrine describes the fundamental stages of bodhisattva-hood, and thus, it provides a distinctive spiritual course for Mahayanists to pursue.

Although all Buddhist sects accept the authenticity of the Pali Sutras or Tripitaka, the Mahayana tradition also proclaims the authenticity of numerous Mahayana sutras composed between 100 A.D. and 400 A.D. (Robinson & Johnson 87). These sutras are rejected by followers of the Theravada tradition who assert that they contradict the essential teachings of the Buddha (Robinson & Johnson 86). However, the Mahayana tradition attests to the authenticity of their sutras. For example, Mahayanists claim that The Lotus Gospel contains the authentic teachings of Siddharta (or Sakyamuni); specifically, they claim that The Lotus Gospel contains the final teachings revealed by the Buddha on the Vulture Peak in Nepal (Soothill 1). The Mahayana sutras proclaim an extraordinary pantheon of bodhisattvas and buddhas that respond to the pleas of their disciples. This is radically different from traditional Hinayanist scriptures, which centered on the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. The emergence of the Mahayana sutras and pantheon marks a major divergence from the one Buddha center of Hinayana tradition. For followers of the Theravada tradition, there is only one Buddha in any age; furthermore, the Theravada tradition is based on the Tripitaka sutras. In contrast, for Mahayanists, there are many buddhas and bodhisattvas; additionally, although Mahayanists accept the Tripitaka or Pali sutras, they also accept a large body of additional or expanded Mahayana sutras.

The Mahayana bodhisattva ideal lead to the creation of a rich and varied pantheon of buddhas and bodhisattvas. The Mahayana bodhisattvas are portrayed as superhuman saviors that respond to the prayers of their devotees. For example, The Lotus Gospel tells that the bodhisattva Kwan-shi-yan is named Regarder of the Cries of the World because he responds to and protects those who are devoted to him. The Lotus Gospel affirms this Mahayana view of the bodhisattva as a protector or savior in the following lines:

If, encompassed by evil beasts,

Sharp of tusk or cruel of claw,

He should think of the Cry-Regarder.

They will flee in every direction;

Or there be boas, vipers and scorpians,

Breathing poison as fire-flame scorching,

If he thinks of the Cry-Regarder,

Instantly they will vanish. (Soothill 250)

In these lines, the Mahayana view of bodhisattvas as beings who protect and answer the prayers of their devotees is apparent. For Mahayanists, bodhisattvas are not only guides to enlightenment, but powerful beings capable of manipulating the world for their devotees. One of the main features of the Mahayana tradition is the creation of a pantheon of great bodhisattvas (such as Kwan-shi-yan). In fact, The Lotus Gospel mentions the names of twenty-three great bodhisattvas (Robinson and Johnson 101). An additional feature of the Mahayana bodhisattva ideal is the belief that bodhisattva can disguise themselves in any form. W.E. Soothill explains this aspect of bodhisattva in his discussion of the bodhisattva, Kuan-yin:

This Bodhisattva appears to all according to their need. If needed as a Hinayana teacher, he appears as such; if as Brahm, or Indra, or Isvara, or a deva, a king, an elder, a citizen, an official, a Brahman, a monk, nun, or male or female disciple, then he appears as such (Soothill 248).

Thus, from the Mahayanist perspective, numerous bodhisattvas are active in the world at any time, and they appear in many different forms. The importance of the bodhisattva ideal within the Mahayana tradition is clearly presented through the rich collection of Mahayana sutras, such as The Lotus Gospel, that exult a extraordinary and distinctive pantheon of bodhisattvas.

The Mahayana devotion to the bodhisattva ideal greatly revolutionized Buddhist thought. Unlike followers of the older Theravada tradition, Mahayanists teach that all should seek the state of bodhisattva-hood. For them, bodhisattva-hood is not exclusive to the historical Buddha; it is a state that all can attain. Thus, the Mahayana tradition exhibits a universal tone. Additionally, the Mahayana devotion to the bodhisattva ideal resulted in the development of a unique spiritual course for aspiring bodhisattvas (Mahayanists). Finally, the Mahayana attachment to the bodhisattva ideal resulted in their creation of a great variety of scriptures (or sutras) that proclaim the existence of numerous, active bodhisattvas. Thus, the Mahayana devotion to the bodhisattva ideal resulted in a drastic divergence from early Hinayanist Buddhist thought, creating a new form of Buddhism that is both universal and polytheistic.

Works Cited

Das, Lama Surya. Awakening the Buddha Within. New York: Broadway Books, 1998.

Ellwood, Robert S. & McGraw, Barbara A. Many Peoples, Many Faiths: Women and Men in the World Religions. 8^th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2005.

Gyatso, Tenzin. The Buddhism of Tibet and The Key to the Middle Way. Trans. Jeffery Hopkins and Lati Rimpoche. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.

Rahula, Dr. W. "Bodhisattva Ideal in Buddhism." Buddhist Missionary Society. 1996. 1 Sept. 2006

Rinpoche, Kalu. The Dharma That Illuminates All Beings Like the Light of the Sun and the Moon. Ed. The Kagyu Thubten Choling Translation Committee. New York: State University of New York Press, 1986.

Robinson, Richard H. & Johnson, Willard L. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. 2nd ed. Encino: Dickenson Publishing Company, Inc., 1977.

Soothill, W.E. The Lotus of The Wonderful Law. London: Curzon Press Ltd., 1987.

Suzuki, Daisetz T. Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism. New York: Schocken Books, Inc., 1963.