Male and Female Rape

Male and female rape is a serious crime. The personal relationships of many women are often bound up with coercion and violence. Although there is information about male rape, this problem also exists. According to statistics, somewhere in the United States, a woman is raped approximately every two minutes. At the same time, not all victims of sexual assaults and rapes report these crimes to law enforcement officials. Many persons, who are raped, do not consider themselves as rape victims. The major explanation that the victims of rape prefer keeping silence and acknowledge themselves as not being rapes is based on societal stereotypes concerning sexual violence. These stereotypes involve the notions that the rape victims secretly enjoyed the rape, 'asked' to be raped, or lied about it. Therefore, the victims of rape, who have the feeling that these erroneous stereotypes can be applied to them, prefer keeping silence and do not report about the incident. What is even more important, the court personnel sometimes also faces difficulties whether the rape has actually occurred, because there are too many variables that play an important role in rape. Although the legal definition of rape does exist, the rape laws still differ from one state to another in the United States thus resulting in problems in defining rape.

In the light of the problem statement, the following aims are formulated for the study: to explore the phenomenon of rape, major facts about rape, the impact of stereotypes in terms of the experience of the rape victims, aspects influencing rape victim blaming, as well as the overview of the laws, policies, and programs concerning male and female rape.

Review of Literature

1. Buddie, A. M. (2001). Beyond Rape Myths: A More Complex View of Perceptions of Rape Victims. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 139.

The author of the article examines personal perceptions and beliefs of cultural stereotypes concerning rape victims. The control group comprised of students aged 18-21, who were offered to list their personal beliefs and perceptions of cultural stereotypes about the victims of rape, and were offered to rate a specific rape victim. According to the results of research, personal beliefs related to the victims of rape were primarily focused on perceptions of the reactions and responses of the victims to the rape, such as anxiety, depression, and other emotional responses, while the rape myths, such as the victim of rape was promiscuous, or asked for rape, were rarely mentioned. At the same time, the perceptions of cultural stereotypes tended to focus on rape myths rather than on the reaction of the victim to rape. The author claims that the victim of rape is more blamed for being raped in case she (or he) has had previous sexual experiences. Rape victims are also blamed more when they tried to resist the rapist later than earlier, thus confirming the stereotype that these victims of rape are "engaging in token resistance". Finally, they are also blamed more in case they are raped by the person familiar to them (i.e. a date or an acquaintance) rather than by a stranger.

2. Turner, R. D. (1990). Date Rape: Perpetrators Are Seldom Strangers and Often Are Trusted Acquaintances. Ebony, 46 (2), 104.

Renee D. Turner explores the date rape and advances the hypothesis that the rapists are often trusted acquaintances than strangers. Although there is no official information concerning the number of rapes convicted by trusted acquaintances of the approximately 130,000 rapes a year, a University of Arizona Medical School Survey of working women and college students report that more than 4 of 5 victims of rape were raped by acquaintances, and more than 50% of college rape victims were raped by their dates. The study also found out that for every reported rape, about three to ten go unreported. Similar to the previous researcher, Renee D. Turner asserts that due to misconceptions concerning rape and rape victims, some victims do not label their assaults rape. According to the survey of over 6,100 college students one out of 12 females admitted they'd been forced to have sex, but only 27% labeled it as a "rape". Women also face the same difficulties, partially due to misconception that excessive male aggression is normal in the modern society, and, partially, due to the opinion that female should be also responsible for a man's actions. Owing to these misconceptions, the vast majority of rape victims do not report about the incident to the authorities, as they feel too guilty, or due to some other reasons.

3. Haws, D. (1997). The Elusive Numbers on False Rape. Columbia Journalism Review, 36, 16.

The author dwells on the back side of the problem, asserting that many rape reports are false. As it was stated in the Kansas City Star, according to police estimates, about 25% of all rape reports in the United States are false. This information conflicts with another police findings, according to which only 2% of 793 rapes in Dallas in 1995 were false and in Louisville about 2% of rapes were considered false. The data varies so widely because the number is determined by the people asked. The researcher considers that sexual assault counselors tend to report the lowest figures of false rape reports. Although the frequency of false rape reports is extremely difficult to be estimated, the information is very interesting. In addition, when the policemen were replaced by policewomen, the rate of false rape reports dropped drastically, probably, due to the fact that the victims of rapes tend to be blamed by men more than by women.

4. Wakelin, A., & Long, K. M. (2003). Effects of Victim Gender and Sexuality on Attributions of Blame to Rape Victims. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 49, 477.

The authors of the article dwell on female and male rape victims. As they claim, about 110,000 men are raped each year in the United States. Although it is presumed that rape victims receive support and sympathy following their ordeal, the reality tends to be different, as the authorities, the public, and even the rape victims themselves often consider rape victims to be guilty. As far as the description of rape of a woman supposes that the rape victim has broken the ascribed traditional gender roles, a rape of a male is somewhat different. Due to the fact that the rules of social acceptability are stricter to women than to the men, male victims' behavior is blamed less that the behavior of female victims. The researchers explain this by the assumption that it is far more difficult for a male to be considered as attracting a rapist; therefore, there is less acceptance of rape myths concerning male rape victims. At the same time, heterosexual rape victims are blamed less than homosexual victims of rape. Moreover, the vast majority of males reporting to the police that they were raped tend to tell that they are heterosexual as they consider they will have a greater chance to be believed. The researchers also undertake the effort to explain why do homosexual male rape victims tend to receive more blame than heterosexual ones. There are three major theories able to provide a concise explanation. The first theory involves McCreary's sexual orientation hypothesis, due to which homosexuals are expected to display the feminine gender role, thus being blamed similar to female rape victims. The second theory is based on assumption that homophobia can be accounted for differences in blame attributed to gay rape victims. Finally, the last theory is based on the explanation about potential sexual attraction.

5. Mitchell, D., Hirschman, R., & Nagay, G. C. (1999). Attributions of Victim Responsibility, Pleasure and Trauma in Male Rape. The Journal of Sex Research, 36, 369.

The authors of the article devote their discussion to the extent of responsibility often attached by people to victims of rape. The study aimed to examine the perceptions of male victims, who have been sexually assaulted by men, as they claim, the male-on-male sexual assault is often underestimated. This type of rape tends to occur in prisons, however, the authors consider that the number of such assaults among non-incarcerated persons increases drastically. According to the clinical research, male rape victims experience significant psychological and physical trauma. However, some researchers consider that male victims of rape, similar to females, are held somewhat responsible for being raped.

6. Robinson Kurpius, S. E., & White, B. H. (2002). Effects of Victim Sex and Sexual Orientation on Perceptions of Rape. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 191.

Bradley H. White and Sharon E. Robinson Kurpius undertake an effort to answer the question who is being responsible for rape in both male and female rapes. The authors consider females to be better able to identify with a female rape victim than males, and consider females to be more aware of potential of becoming a victim of rape. According to them, male rape victims are blamed for being raped when they failed to behave in accordance with their gender stereotype, while female rape victims were blamed more due to specific aspects of their character. Female rape victims perceived as vulnerable, passive, and sexual were blamed more and attributed more responsibility, namely, for having provoked the aggressor.

7. Larimer, M. E., Lydum, A. R., & Anderson, B. K. (1999). Male and Female Recipients of Unwanted Sexual Contact in a College Student Sample: Prevalence Rates, Alcohol Use, and Depression Symptoms. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 40, 295.

The authors of the article explore the role played by alcohol in male victimization, pointing out that the consumption of alcohol has a disinhibiting effect on perpetration of sexual aggression. Alcohol, therefore, is considered to be a risk factor for sexual victimization, both in males and females, as it lowers awareness of risky situations and impairs the ability to resist the aggressor. According to the authors, 53% of female rape victims were under the influence of alcohol at the time of assault. The researchers also found out that persons, who reported having been recipients of sexual assault events reported more depressive symptoms than did persons who had not experienced these events.

8. Bryden, D. P., & Lengnick, S. (1997). Rape in the Criminal Justice System. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 87.

The authors of the article dwell on rape within the frameworks of the modern criminal justice system. They place emphasis on the fact that justice system discriminates against the victims of rape, as the attrition in rape incidents is extremely high, while very few of aggressors are indeed convicted of the crime. The victims avoid reporting to police, as they feel hostile treatment from the side of authorities. Finally, the victims are afraid of vicious discriminatory attacks on their character during a trial. The authors propose to reexamine the central tenets of the rape law reform movement, that discrimination against the victims of rape pervades criminal justice system, thus being the major reason why very few rapists are punished, and to attract attention to the fact that "die outcomes of forcible rape cases can be substantially changed by abolishing rules of law that are thought to foster such discrimination".

9. Walker, J., Archer, J., & Davies, M. (2005). Effects of Rape on Men: A Descriptive Analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 69.

The authors of the article examine the occurrence of male rape incidents outside of institutionalized settings like prisons. The authors consider that help and support to male victims of rape is more than 20 years behind that of female victims. While the reporting of male sexual assault is significantly increasing year by year, recorded sexual offences against males are much lower than those recorded against females. For example, in 2002 4,096 indecent assaults and 852 rapes were recorded against males, while 24, 811 indecent assaults and 11, 441 rapes were recorded against females. Male victims refuse reporting about the rape to police as they consider they will be disbelieved, experience negative treatment, or blamed for their rape. The fear of negative reaction also hinders males to seek for medical attention after rape. Apart from that the authors examine psychological consequences of rape both for male and female victims. After rape the vast majority of victims experience an increased sense of vulnerability, become concerned with taking safety precautions, and think about changing their life drastically to avoid the possibility of being raped again. The victims often blame themselves and feel ashamed. Male victims often become confused about their sexual orientation, and, while some of heterosexual victims start seeking out homosexual contact after rape, some of them, on contrary, display outrage, hatred, or irrational loathing of all homosexuals.

10. Spohn, C. C., & Horney, J. (1996). The Impact of Rape Law Reform on the Processing of Simple and Aggravated Rape Cases. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86 (3), 861-884.

The authors of the article examine changes in rape laws and assess the impact on processing of rape cases. As it is claimed by the researchers, there has been a change in rape laws and the rules of evidence. The reformers criticized traditional rape laws as they defined rape narrowly and required both proof that the rape victim did resist the attacker, and corroboration of the victim's testimony. These laws discouraged rape victims from reporting the rape to authorities and constructed barriers to the successful prosecution of rape cases. In response to this, some states replaced the rape crime with a series of "gender-neutral offenses defined by the presence or absence of aggravating circumstances", some states eliminated legal requirements concerning the victim's resistance to offender, and some states enacted rape shield laws restricting to use of evidence of the victim's reputation or past sexual behavior.

Summary

The researchers unanimously consider rape to be a serious crime. According to the statistics, a woman is raped about every two minutes, and the men also fall the victims of rape, as approximately 110,000 males are raped every year in the United States. Although the authorities claim that the victims of rape receive enough sympathy and support, it is far from truth, as society tends to blame victims of rape even more often than their offenders. To a certain extent it can be explained by beliefs of cultural stereotypes and personal perceptions about the victims of rape. The society faces so-called rape myths, according to which the victim of rape is often responsible for being rape, for example, considering that the victim asked for rape, or the victim's behavior was provocative. The female victims are blamed more often in case they have had previous sexual experiences, or tried to resist the rapist later (but not from the very beginning). In addition, as far as over 50 per cent of female rape victims were under the influence of alcohol at the time of rape, this fact, probably, also prevents them to report about the rape, as females are afraid of being disbelieved.

What concerns male victims of rape, it was already mentioned that over 110,000 men are raped every year in the United States. Male rape victims are often blamed less than females because as the description of rape of a woman implies that the female victim of rape has broken traditional gender roles, a rape of a male is different. This, partially, is explained by the fact that it is more difficult to imagine male to be attracting a rapist, while women often behave in a somewhat provocative way. Heterosexual rape victims are blamed less than homosexuals, but, interesting enough that they often become confused about their sexual orientation, thus leading to either seeking for homosexual contact after rape, or, in contrast, start displaying hatred, and irrational blaming and condemnation for all homosexuals.

The vast majority of researchers also prove the fact that the rapes are most often committed by trusted acquaintances than by strangers. R. Turner reports that four out of five rape victims were raped by their close acquaintances, and over 50 per cent of them were raped by their dates. The researchers also consider that due to this fact the victims of rape also tend not to report about the rape, as they are afraid of potential repeated crime, or revenge, or other negative response from their offender. At the same time, as the victims of rape are often raped by the people they know, the victims rarely label it a 'rape'.

Although the vast majority of researchers consider that the victims of rapes rarely report police and authorities, D. Haws claims that according to police findings, over 25 per cent of rape reports in the United States are false. Yet, it seems quire embarrassing, and this is the only report claiming of such a high percentage of false rape reports. Another surveys and findings claim that there is indeed some percentage of false rape reports, but it is quite insignificant, as it makes up about 2 out of every hundred rape reports. There is also a hypothesis that the information is so different because it depends on people being asked. For example, sexual assault counselors report the lowest figures of false rape reports, while the policemen, authorities, and civil population tends to consider that there is a large amount of false accusations.

It is also believed that justice criminal system discriminates against the victims of rape, because, although the rape rate is very high, only few of offenders are accused of and convicted of crime. The victims to not want to report to police because they are afraid of hostile treatment from the police and are also afraid of vicious discriminatory attacks on their character when the investigation and trial will occur. The government and society understand all vulnerabilities in the justice criminal system and undertake all efforts to improve the situation. Some states replaced the rape crime with a series of "gender-neutral offenses defined by the presence or absence of aggravating circumstances" and enacted rape shield laws restricting to use of evidence of the victim's reputation or past sexual behavior.

Conclusion

In conclusion it may be said that rape is indeed a very serious crime. The most embarrassing issue is that the victims of rape, instead of receiving an appropriate support and help, both from the side of local authorities, police, or community, are very often blamed for being raped due to plenty of reasons. These reasons, as far as I understood, are basically social stereotypes, especially when it relates to female rape victims. Female rape victims are often accused of provocative behavior and are considered to be teasing or provoking their offender. In result, the victims of rape avoid going to police and report about the incident. Moreover, even in case the victim of rape goes to police and files a claim against the offender, she (or he) is often discriminated by the authorities, feel hostile treatment, and experience vicious discriminatory attacks on their character during a trial. Naturally, all these things make the victims of rape to avoid reporting to police.

Evidently, something should be done to improve the situation. While the U.S. criminal justice system consistently enacts various laws and rules in order to ensure that the victims of rape are treated in a just and righteous manner, it is still not enough. The U.S. society should create and support various community services to ensure the victims of rape are treated in a sensitive manner and receive all they want and need to. The government, in its turn, should reexamine the rape laws in order to make the system functioning more efficiently. The community resources for the victims of rape should not be piecemeal, but, on contrary, should be coordinated to allow the victim of rape to go through all stages in the most convenient way (for example, going to the hospital for the rape examination and evidence collection, meeting with a detective in a police station, meeting the state's attorney to discuss prosecution, and going to crisis center to get all necessary information and crisis counseling). Beside, essential attention should be given to the male victims of rape, as males report about the rape much rarely. In such a way, improving the experience of the victims of rape with all these medical, legal, and mental health systems will be, probably, the best way to help with this problem.

References

Bryden, D. P., & Lengnick, S. (1997). Rape in the Criminal Justice System. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 87.

Buddie, A. M. (2001). Beyond Rape Myths: A More Complex View of Perceptions of Rape Victims. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research , 139.

Haws, D. (1997). The Elusive Numbers on False Rape. Columbia Journalism Review, 36, 16.

Larimer, M. E., Lydum, A. R., & Anderson, B. K. (1999). Male and Female Recipients of Unwanted Sexual Contact in a College Student Sample: Prevalence Rates, Alcohol Use, and Depression Symptoms. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 40, 1999, 40, 295.

Mitchell, D., Hirschman, R., & Nagay, G. C. (1999). Attributions of Victim Responsibility, Pleasure and Trauma in Male Rape. The Journal of Sex Research, 36, 369.

Robinson Kurpius, S. E., & White, B. H. (2002). Effects of Victim Sex and Sexual Orientation on Perceptions of Rape. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research , 191.

Spohn, C. C., & Horney, J. (1996). The Impact of Rape Law Reform on the Processing of Simple and Aggravated Rape Cases. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86 (3), 861-884.

Turner, R. D. (1990). Date Rape: Perpetrators Are Seldom Strangers and Often Are Trusted Acquaintances. Ebony, 46 (2), 104.

Wakelin, A., & Long, K. M. (2003). Effects of Victim Gender and Sexuality on Attributions of Blame to Rape Victims. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 49, 477.

Walker, J., Archer, J., & Davies, M. (2005). Effects of Rape on Men: A Descriptive Analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 69.