Medieval Challenges to Papal Power

In the early years of the Catholic Church, it is fair to say that the authority of the pope went virtually unchallenged. Part monarch, part divine advocate and overall human, the first few centuries of papal rule enjoyed the luxury of absolute power, albeit temporary, as the role and potency of the papacy saw itself mutated during the medieval era (Spielvogel). The papacy underwent great reforms in medieval times, changing the pope's role from a political one to a primarily spiritual and doctrinal function. In the process, though, the pope's influence over Europe's emerging nation-states was diminished, especially later in the medieval era, when the Protestant Reformation divided Christianity in western and central Europe (Spielvogel). In the broadest sense, it is accurate to say that the theocratic ideal of papal sovereignty faced its most significant challenge from a religious viewpoint.

In painting the opposition against the papacy with the broad brush of religion, clarification is required to understand more fully what is meant by a claim of religious challenges to the pope and his fabricated fiefdom. Of course, religion in this context refers to the activities, attitudes, and actions that those affiliated with the church undertook at the time in terms of challenges to the established order of the pope and his minions. More specifically, the people who had devoted their lives to the church, be they clergy or laypersons, found that their faith and devotion was being mocked, diluted, and destroyed by the pope, whomever the pope happened to be in a given era, due to the ever increasing role of the papacy as a sort of kingdom, far removed from the heavenly kingdom of God that the followers and parishioners of the Catholic faith sought to inherit. A prominent example of this can be found in the area of what were then called papal indulgences; in other words, the favor of the church, as well as the "blessing" of the pope, could literally be purchased (Spielvogel). As an example, a wealthy individual who sought to be divorced from a spouse, which was considered a sacrilege in the dogma of the church, could receive an annulment of their marriage through the presentation of a stipend to the pope, who would then grant a papal indulgence to make it possible for the marriage to disappear as if it had never occurred.

Religion, in a loose sense, also crossed over into the matters of the secular world due to the accumulation of papal authority, as evidenced by the Great Crusades, during which the pope assumed the role of a sort of commander in chief, who commissioned, gave orders to, and piled accolades on armies who were for all intents and purposes mercenaries, who committed genocide against others who did not follow the beliefs of the Catholic church. This of course was done in the name of salvation, for the power of the pope and his church by this time had increased to the extent that those who were not affiliated with the Catholic church were branded as infidels who were required to either convert to the Catholic faith, or face a painful, violent death at the hands of the "crusaders", who were led, motivated, and supported by the papacy.

Looking beyond the membership of the Catholic Church, opposition to the pope and his absolute form of rule could be found among the individuals who owed no allegiance to the church, but held prominence in secular society nonetheless. Representations of such defiance can be found in literature, such as the tale of Martin Guerre, who essentially underwent a change of identity, and thereby a personal metamorphosis, in his quest to gain a sense of inner identity, apart from the church and the control that the pope wielded over the common people much like the classic representation of a malevolent despot (Davis). The circumstances that Guerre underwent in his personal journey are symbolic of the plight of millions of people, who sought the freedom of self realization, apart from the dark veil of the church, which was held in place by the bejeweled hands of the pope and his lackeys.

The representations to be found in literature are echoed in the history of medieval times, akin to art imitating life in the most literal sense. Before the emergence of the major dissenters who gained much ground in medieval times, the papacy fought against anticlerical dissent from many other sources as well. Much of this centered on allegations of corruption within the Catholic clergy and the perceived decadence of certain leaders. In part to reinvigorate the church, new monastic orders like the Benedictines and Franciscans were created. However, the papacy itself was more severely threatened by divisions over popes' elections. Secular rulers wanted greater influence over popes, and in the fourteenth century, there appeared a series of popes and "anti-popes," elected in disputed elections by rival factions of bishops. The church replied to secular rulers' efforts to sway papal elections by electing only Italians for next 450 years (Spielvogel).

Ultimately, the emergence of Martin Luther was inspired by the sale of papal indulgences to attack its practices; the church was forced to confront its practices, which had grown increasingly worldly. (This was especially true of Pope Leo X, whom Luther harshly criticized.) The church's Counter-Reformation included improved training for clerics, better administration and internal discipline, and increased popular piety. However, the papacy's political position was further undermined by the need to secure rulers' support against Protestantism's rising popularity. Christian monarchs and princes assumed greater control in the fight against heresy, which increasingly forced the papacy into a lesser role.

Ultimately, there were occurrences which led to the demise of papal authority to the extent that it had existed for centuries prior to medieval opposition. The inception of positive law was the last and final blow to the concept of religion. Positive law is fashioned and codified by man. The law has replaced the concept of morality. The framework which laws create makes the state and its sovereign powers legitimate and legal. States no longer operate in terms of what is just but on whether the legality for the action or jurisdiction has application. The evolution of the state and its sovereignty is clear. The Church once being a dominant political factor has been reduced to a mere whisper of advice. The influence of religion in instituting or in the elective process of choosing a representative ruler has been severely minimized. Sovereignty and the institution of the State have surpassed predestination and Divine Right of Kings.

Ultimately, the medieval challenges to papal supremacy came down to several major religious areas: internally, the church members and leadership, below the papal level of course, became increasingly vocal and active in the opposition to the power that the pope had accumulated over the generations, and how a given pope would mete out that power. Additionally, it was felt that the pope used this power for self enrichment and the accumulation of wealth, both of which were expressly forbidden in the most ancient traditions of the church itself. It is also not a far stretch, indeed a fact supported by secondary sources, that the pope committed assassinations against his opposition, through the guise of the Great Crusades. These killings were not the result of defense against armed aggressors, but rather, the wholesale extermination of those who ideologically disagreed with the pope and his organization, the church, much like a mob mentality.

The commoners outside of the church wished to be protected from intimidation into activities that they disagreed with from a moral and religious point of view. As people fought to gain freedom during this time, the church was opposed a foe much in the same way that an invading army would be.

Following the fight against papal supremacy, indeed, the role of the pope, and the future of the papacy would never be the same. This can be attributed to the challenges to papal sovereignty that emerged during the medieval era, and stands today as a pivotal event not only in church history, but in the history of western civilization as well.

Works Cited

Davis, N. The Return of Martin Guerre.1984.
Spielvogel, J. J. Western Civilization Since 1300. 6th ed.