Mesmerism in Antebellum and Post-Antebellum America

Experimental psychology along with the mind/body problem Descartes and other foundational psychologists and philosophers brought to world-consciousness evolved in the mid-19^th century in the United States (Wozniak, 1995). Relative to these experimental thoughts were a variety of belief systems; some of which were not necessarily considered mainstream such as mesmerism, animal magnetism, and phrenology. Scholars and scientific professionals would agree that Descartes and others introduced new avenues of what psychology and philosophy evolved into (Ashmore, Brown, & MacMillan, 2005; Schmit, 2005). The inference here is that the mind-body issue along with more experimental psychological thinking such as those areas mentioned becoming popular formed somewhat of a marriage between experimental and mind/body psychological thought (Ashmore, et.al, 2005; Barrucand, 1969). The results demonstrated exploration and examination of the connections between medicine, philosophy, and broader perspectives in the field of psychology that have brought all these areas of scientific practices to the greatness that is evidenced in psychology as well as spirituality today (1969; Payla, 2005) .

This paper will address societal influences and thinking regarding the overall posture of American society's thinking, actions, and belief systems in antebellum through the post antebellum period. We will examine the relevance of political, medical, and religious influences upon psychology and philosophy. Further, the focus will be to explain how Americans were still very much seeking ways to understand as well as develop their independence as a country with thinking and behaviors that showed the rest of the world that they were able to think and act clearly based on their own developed principles.

How they developed and understood ways in which to achieve those goals is clearly seated in the historical aspects of psychology. As we will discuss, credit must be given to the European physician/philosopher, Mesmer (Porter, 1985)who founded mesmerism and animal magnetism practices which were introduced to the United States by both he and Poyen (1936) (Carlson, 2005). Additionally, what will be covered will be specific theoretical and documented discussions, examinations, and explorations that speak to the rise and fall of mesmerism in 19^th century America based upon theories and societal impacts that were relevant to what was occurring in America regarding politics and government, technology, and family. What was directly connected to antebellum and post antebellum society concerned that which related to psychology, philosophy, and theology and the impact on America devastated by the onset of Civil War and its aftermath (Buchner, 1910; Cantor, 1975).

Finally, an overview of the important impact mesmerism, animal magnetism, and phrenology made on psychology today as it is connected to specific impacts the American Civil War made upon society that effected reasons for dissemination of mesmerism. Some direct results of societal changes prior to as well as throughout the American Civil War brought questionable doubt to society about the teachings of Mesmerism in exchange for more acceptances of Darwin's theories. These discussions will be the bases of the conclusion of this paper.

Historical Models of Psychology and Philosophy

Let us consider what might be termed a marriage as well as blend of medical and philosophical therapies founded by the Viennese physician, Mesmer (1734-1815), known as mesmerism. Mesmer introduced animal magnetism with an attached definition that explained magnetism as subtle imperceptible curative fluids which were contained in the body (Ashemore, et al, 2005; Khilstrom, 2002; McCandless, 1992; Porter, 1985). It is also important to recognize that there were movements separate from as well as both preceding and stemming from mesmerism that developed in the United States beginning with antebellum society, as well as up until the post-antebellum period in United States society, specifically, animal magnetism and phrenology (2005;Cantor, 1975; 1985; Reigal, 1933).

It should also be understood that there were specific uses that served the purposes of animal magnetism therapy in the early part of 19^th century (the 1830s and 1840s). Much of what the practice was utilized for pertained to medical issues such as breathing problems, mental disorders, pain management, mental comfort, and life changes in regards to personal habits; many of the things that we use hypnosis for today. However, there was also a connection with the introduction of clear-seeing (clairvoyance) which expanded from the use of trances; also used in animal magnetism therapy and demonstrations. These were common practices that were explored by many segments of the United States who were quickly becoming known as magnetists and mesmerists (Quinn, 2007; Schmit, 2005).

Prior to the critical societal changes affecting antebellum America families, government, and philosophies resulting from the devastations which were already occurring in society with anticipation of the onset of the American Civil War, many segments of American society were openly enthusiastic and accepting of the mesmerism movement (McCandless, 1992; Nygren, 1970, Reigal, 1933).

Various regions within the United States were conducting open discussions and conferences regarding ideologies of Mesmerism. Additionally, religion and spirituality were experiencing exploration and vivid discussions with acceptance of hypnosis and trances led by popular religious, political, and philosophical figures of those times (Cantor, 1975; Castronovo, 1999; Ernst, 2004; Porter, 1985).

In the United States from the 1830s through 1850s Parisian, Poyen in 1836 introduced mesmerism to intellectuals and other influential segments of the populace in several lectures in Boston's Chauncey Hall (Carlson, 2005; Jastrow, 1933; McCandless, 1992). His explanation included demonstrations of somnambulism (mesmerism) and explanations of how animal magnetism possessed trance-like, hypnotic, and healing properties which expounded on Mesmer's definition of animal magnetism as an invisible curative fluid. The already popular author Ralph Waldo Emerson was among the intellectuals that became enamored by this newly curative [transcendentalist] movement called Animal Magnetism. Although antebellum United States was entrenched in staunch doctrines such as Jacksonian Democratic era (1767-1845) Methodism, progressive, and reform revival movements; animal magnetism still became common, albeit controversial, with the support of intellectuals like Emerson and many other influential Americans to exhibit open explorations of hypnotism, trances, and spirituality in psychological and philosophical thoughts (Schmit, 2005; Vukin, 1999). Equally, the connection between animal magnetism and mesmerism had been established as a blend or marriage of thought and therapeutic practice (Ashemore, et al, 2005, Porter, 1985).

The controversial nature of animal magnetism and mesmerism was not without criticism by clergymen and political figures in antebellum America. Many openly warned people of the dangers of participating in what they coined demonic, witchcraft, and without merit or foundation in anything that was concrete; spiritually, or philosophically (McCandless, 1992). Still, the mesmerism movement was openly explored and acknowledged and became known as a significant movement of the times that evolved into the transcendentalism and spiritualism movements (Schmit, 2005; Vukin, 1999).

In addition to animal magnetism and mesmerism, phrenology (Cantor, 1975) was connected to animal magnetism and mesmerism by many clergymen and political figures in antebellum United States because of the avant-garde methods of therapies, belief systems, and modalities used by those who were involved in the movements (McCandless, 1992). Renowned Congregationalist, Grant Powers spoke against these popularized movements admonishing the principles as well as inferring that they could be been construed as too worldly, abolitionist influenced, and, practiced by charlatans (1992). Popular figures such as Walt Whitman and Edgar Allen Poe, who were also considered to be individualists incorporated phrenology in their writings. There were no medical schools that taught individuals how to become Magnetists (those individuals who performed animal magnetism on subjects). Phrenologists were considered to be radicals who spoke freely about their beliefs regarding scientific methods of research, religion, and social norms. This included speaking out against slavery and human rights (1992; Castronovo, 1999; Reigal, 1933; Vukin, 1999).

Methodologies, Concepts, and Ideologies in mid-19^th Century America

With so much at stake in antebellum through post-antebellum United States regarding instability, uncertainty, and turmoil which affected individuals from every walk of life, a need for consistency and foundation was strongly desired and sought out. Americans were looking for sound ways in which to define who they were as a cohesive society.

Darwin's (1809-1882) theories on evolution were the common American zeitgeist of the day (Witham, 2002); however, mesmerism was also accepted as was the knowledge of African Diasporas religions such as Vodun, and magic in addition to Christianity (Castronovo, 1999; Ernst, 2004; Gezundhajt, 2007; Porter, 1985; Witham, 2002). America was in its own way a melting pot, not only of ethnicities, but also of philosophical thinking and practices. What seemed to bring about significant changes to philosophies revolved around the onset
The Fall of Mesmerism, Magnetism, and Phrenology

Mesmer did not have a command of the English language. This was became a serious deficit for his demonstrations and public discussions that were intended to increase the movement following. Instead of becoming more adept with speaking English, many believe he simply gave up his zeal and mesmerism interest began to weaken (Khilstrom, 2002). However, it must be understood that the rise of technology and American intellect and interest in psychology and sciences also played an accompanying and relevant part to the diminished interest in mesmerism (2002; Quinn, 2007; Schmit, 2005). There were also other reasons for the fall of the mesmerism movement.There became a rise in individuals who were labeled charlatans who were trying to make money or a name for themselves.There were also accusations that magnetists were taking sexual advantages of women and eliciting sexual favors without permission while the participants were in trance and hypnotic states (2007; 2005). Additionally, Victorian thought prevailed along with religious and political civilities that began to deem mesmerism as non-religious and therefore unacceptable behavior (McCandless, 1992).

The mid-century of the 1800s was flourishing is many ways even with the ongoing disruptions and devastations of the Civil War. The Morse code came into focus in 1844. Railroads were flourishing. Technology was thriving. The United States by the mid 19^th century was the most populated in the world with libraries and learning institutions (Schmit, 2005). Although mesmerists and animal magnetists used the onset of Morse code (as the first technical use of electricity) as a basis for supporting their theory of healing with invisible fluids and electricity, which they believed ran through the body and elicited healing, antebellum Americans were becoming much more educated and curious. These curiosities brought about questioning that which could not be found in publication or proven scientifically (2005).

By 1860, 50 books and manuals had been published that explained the how-to's of mesmerism as well as refuting the practice (McCandless, 1992; Nygren, 1970; Schmit, 2005). Additionally, scientists and physiologists such as Baird and Helmholtz respectively proved scientifically that trances could be induced in individuals without the use of magnetism, and further proved that there were specific substances that existed in the body that were completely perceptible, unlike what animal magnetism claimed (Vulkin, 1999) (regarding imperceptible fluids that had curative properties as originally claimed by Mesmer).

Conclusion

Still, mesmerism must be credited with bringing about significant changes to philosophical as well as theological and scientific thinking in the United States. According to Schmit (2005) "Mesmerism holds the distinction of being the only psychological movement to foment a new religion: Spiritualism...." Equally, mesmerism brought about broader perspectives on mentality and how humans are connected to state of mind (perhaps as mind over matter in trance and hypnotic states). It may not be commonly stated or credited in the science of psychology that mesmerism as well as its' partner, phrenology contributed to psychology. This thinking may be attributed to the lack of cohesiveness in theories and practices in both these pseudo-sciences to permit longevity (McCandless, 1992; Vulkin, 1999).

In a still new world that was still in turmoil with wars and upheavals with less than 50 years past in separating from England, American society sought stability. Mesmerism was not explained well enough by its founders (McCandless, 1992)and did not produce enough security for the belief systems of antebellum and the intellectually evolved post-antebellum United States society. With the very core of everything that represented security in American families being at risk of being shaken to the core, individuals migrated toward more security and mainstream thinking that represented tangibility. Darwinism took a front seat along with Christianity and creationism (Witham, 2002). Mesmerism, phrenology, and its associate animal magnetism fell.

Categorized as that which did not represent a secure foundation, these philosophies could not be saved despite efforts by its founders and followers (Barrucand, 1969, Jastrow, 1933; Payla, 2005; Schmit, 2005). What resulted was the fall of mesmerism along with phrenology in the sight of Americans during the mid-19^th century which became post-antebellum in nature and practice.

The history of psychology is rich in a variety of movements. What is so fascinating about the mesmerism movement is the many offspring it continues to produce even today. We even have familiar words that are expansions of Mesmer's philosophical and experimental thinking. Everyone is familiar with the term "mesmerizing" although there may be some who are not familiar with the root of the word as being a historical approach to psychology and philosophy which has now not only evolved into spirituality, but also into what we commonly call the New Age movement and many other offshoots of the mesmerism movement. Equally, those mavericks who were so daring in early American history to openly practice that which was not necessarily accepted as status-quo probably had no idea that their freedom in thinking would evolve into behavioral and cognitive studies that continue to help people become healthier individuals.

As a supporter and participant in the New Age Movement myself, it is doubtful that I would have become a Family Life Educator, a Certified Spirituality and Diversity Life Coach, a Tarot Card Reader and Instructor, and a scholar practitioner pursuing a doctoral degree in Psychology had it not been for founders such as Descartes, Poyen, Mesmer, Darwin, Freud, and Jung stepping outside of society's mainstream comfort zone with experimental thinking which has evolved in such outstanding ways in the scientific field of psychology. There are many of us who are and will become experts just as those individuals were and we will make history as well.

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