Organizational History of the CIA

Since the advent of our nation, gathering intelligence information has played a vital role in preserving our independence and securing our borders. President Truman consolidated national security efforts with the National Security Act in 1947, thereby creating the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Prior to the creation of the CIA, The Continental Army, the Office of Strategic Services, and the State and War Departments handled intelligence matters during separate historical periods. All of these agencies influenced how the Central Intelligence Agency is organized today.

During the American Revolutionary War, George Washington ensured reliability of intelligence material by diversifying his sources. He recruited and questioned agents on both the Tory and Patriot sides. Travelers were also interrogated about their observations. Washington required that all intelligence briefs be submitted in a timely fashion and written in a precise manner as to avoid any ambiguity and false recollection. Upon receipt of these reports, Washington prepared both defensive and offensive strategies.

Washington's organization of sources and ability to determine which intelligence information was accurate led to his victory. With funds from the Continental Congress, he enlisted aides and employed secret agents to conduct intelligence missions. Certain aides were responsible for questioning prisoners while other aides investigated agents Washington suspected of working for the enemy. Agents that reported directly to him were called the Knowlton Rangers. They were the first organized spy unit established for this nation.

Additionally, there was the Patriot Intelligence network of individuals from Boston also referred to as the mechanics. Members, one of which was Paul Revere, were reportedly associated with the Sons of Liberty. While their security efforts proved less worthwhile than other Washington sources, they were successful in destroying some of Britain's military equipment sabotaging potential operations. The Culper Ring agents demonstrated greater effectiveness by developing secret codes, symbols, and written communications that Washington valued. Culper Ring personnel assumed a lifestyle within Britain communities giving them an advantage of obtaining useful intelligence information through casual conversations.

While Washington's intelligence missions resulted in victory, policymakers for decades continued to rely upon information gathered by non-collaborative groups. The material was not catalogued in a central location making it difficult for leaders to make accurate inferences. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt realized that World War II was imminent, he called for cooperation amongst intelligence departments including the Army and Navy. When his request for teamwork failed in 1941, FDR created a civilian office called Coordinator of Information (COI). Since our nation had not yet partaken in WWII, the COI's primary functions were to compile and analyze the data collected thus far into a centralized format.

A man named Donovan was named as Head of the Coordinator of Information. He was well respected by government officials and civilians for his background in legal and military affairs. Typically, the Army and Navy conducted espionage missions only during times of conflicts. However, the COI was proactive gathering and organizing data during times of peace. The organization's assignments were funded with monies from FDR's emergency fund granted by Congress for discretionary use by the Executive Branch. The funds were not audited and the President assumed full responsibility for all outcomes. Under President Roosevelt's direction, Donovan recruited educated individuals from elite backgrounds to join the COI. These employees along with Donovan used their research and analytical skills to compile a library of cohesive intelligence material.

When Pearl Harbor was bombed, military and civilian conflict ensued regarding clandestine intelligence matters. The COI wanted a more active role in spy missions while military branches deemed civilians unqualified for such tasks. To appease both sides, FDR split the COI into military and layman units. Layman staff became part of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). Still dissatisfied with the arrangement, the military blocked Axis communications from OSS employees. The COI had developed a strong relationship with Britain and continued to report matters of national security to the President.

The Office of Strategic Service known for its research and analysis thrived during this time of unrest due to its well-educated staff and use of human intelligence. By the end of WWII, the OSS had created collated data sets from various sources. Despite disagreements between military and civilian groups, the OSS's efforts to centralize intelligence survived even after the agency was dismantled. The Research and Analysis Branch was considered such a reliable and vital source of information that the tradition continues today in the Central Intelligence Agency as does the use of human intelligence rather than just merely obtaining information via interception.

FDR passed away in April 1945. Truman assumed the Presidency role and began immediately to shut down the OSS. Historians report that Truman was not fond of Donovan and thought the agency's missions were inefficient and a waste of money. Citizens were tired of funding war as well so the OSS and other agencies focused on war were terminated. Being that the Research and Analysis Branch was so worthwhile, it was moved to and maintained by the State and War Department. The Secretary of War found peacetime missions conducted by the OSS valuable and requested personnel and assets to fund what is now known as the Central Intelligence Agency.

Many of the original leaders and staff members of the CIA were trained by OSS, which is why the visions of today's CIA continues to carry out the visions of the OSS. The visions that national security need to be centralized and policies regarding command and security need to be made preemptively, ready to protect America at any given time, remain vital components of our national security. As with the OSS, the CIA Director is appointed by the President. The Director reports findings to those people deemed by the President to be senior policymakers.

Initially, the CIA was given power to conduct clandestine operations using its civilian employees without regard to immigration laws and without having to disclose procedures and how money was spent. All fiscal and administrative matters were confidential even though federal funds were granted to the agency. In 1952, the Director of Central Intelligence, Smith, also a close friend of Eisenhower, convinced the President to form within the CIA the Directorate of Plans. Around the same time, the U.S. Army of Special Forces was established, whereby, the CIA was permitted access to military assistance. The civilian office was now permitted to overlap into the military area.

In the height of the Cold War, the CIA worked with military strategists forming the National Reconnaissance Office responsible for aircraft and satellites. Changing with the times meant collaborating in an effort to explore and utilize technological advancements deemed useful in obtaining intelligence information. During this time, military staff and civilian employees jointly conducted covert operations. The CIA was not the only organization recognizing the need for cooperation as national security issues grew in scope.

Around the 1970s, Congress began trying to oversee the actions carried out by the CIA. Allegations of attempted and actual assassinations, arms smuggling, and interference with domestic issues, clearly intended to be monitored by the FBI, resulted in Congressional investigations. Upon further probing, it was also reported that the CIA conducted experiments on civilians unbeknownst to them involving LSD. In 1975, Ford declared that assassinations of foreign leaders was not permitted. In 1991, the Intelligence Authorization Act demanded that House and Senate Intelligence committees be informed when the CIA operates in countries uninvited. They now receive Congressional Reports.

An additional check was adopted in 2004. The Central Intelligence Agency no longer reports directly to the President rather to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI). The DNI relays information to the National Security Advisor responsible for informing the President via briefings based on intelligence received from various intelligence agencies. Periodically, there continues to be allegations of abuse resulting in domestic casualties, torture of prisoners, and security failures, particularly the 9/11 attacks. Even during times of turmoil, the CIA and the government find a way to work together. Within the agency, duties are divided up amongst staff based on their assigned department and security clearance level.

Currently, the Central Intelligence Agency is comprised of four divisions. The National Clandestine Service reports on terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, and regional instability issues. This section is largely responsible for human and special intelligence missions authorized by the President. The Directorate of Intelligence provides objective, daily briefs in writing about events worldwide. Reviews address political, economic, and multinational concerns. The Directorate of Science and Technology focuses on technological advancements. These technologies enable collected information to be organized in a useful and secure fashion. The Directorate of Support hires individuals to build facilities, networks, and equipment necessary for the other divisions to safely accomplish their missions. These four divisions work together everyday making the CIA quite an impressive force.

Intelligence gathering procedures will continue to change as new issues of national security arise. However, one aspect will remain certain, centralization is a must. Historically, collaboration proved necessary and beneficial. This belief is reflected in the organization of the Central Intelligence Agency. Within one agency, various national security issues are addressed via delegation to specialized in-house divisions. While each employee is not kept abreast of every detail, employees with high security access can obtain details from the internal systems. The Central Intelligence Agency learned from past departments how to effectively organize itself and serve in the best interest of this nation.