Passion, Love, and Devotion

The Loves of Krishna in Indian Painting and Poetry by W. G. Archer describes the influence of the stories of Krishna
in art and poetry. In the Mahabharata, Krishna is portrayed as an incarnation of Vishnu and the hero of the epic. However, before this epic was written, the Chandogya Upanishad gave a brief and vague portrait of Krishna. Near the time of the compilation of the Mahabharata the common religious view was that doing one's duty as a devotee and as a member of a caste guarantees that one will be reborn into a better stage in life. These themes of duty and devotion are demonstrated in the many stories, poetry, and paintings of Krishna.

The actual character of Krishna is portrayed in the Mahabharata and still influences the commonly held ideals of him in today. He is seen as a cow herder and a prince. This epic describes him as a prince from the Yadava family. This becomes an important element of how Krishna is depicted in poems and art. A common example of how an artist may accurately and recognizably portray Krishna is to place a cow in the painting. Another element of popular styles in paintings and poetry of Krishna is to depict his many consorts. Frolicking women renders a familiar scene in the Mahabharata with "girls in the party with delightful rounded haunches, large breasts and handsome eyes… [flirting] as Arjuna and Krishna demanded" (22). It seems to be too important of a scene for many to ignore. Perhaps this represents the power of Krishna since he receives the passion he demands.

Passion becomes a very important element in both paintings and poetry. It is viewed as the symbol of final union with God (72). Sex is an experience of ecstasy that is surpassed only by the experience of impassioned adoration of Krishna. Both forms of passion, divine and sexual-though not necessarily separate-can lead to salvation. Radha, his consort, represents divine passion and becomes a popular character in poetry and paintings. Though she is committing adultery, it is acceptable only because it is an act of worship and devotion to God.

The power and importance of Krishna is illustrated when the Pandavas choose to use Krishna over the fighters in the war in the Mahabharata. By doing this, they demonstrate how important it is to have Krishna on their side. Thus, the epic is suggesting that worshipping Krishna and gaining his favor is essential for any success. He is the all, and by devoting oneself to him, one is guaranteed to be successful in all endeavors.

Archer believes that the Mahabharata does not explain Krishna but simply introduces him. We know that he is an incarnation of Vishnu and his immediate purpose is to vanquish a particular tyrant and hearten the righteous (25). But, what do we know of his childhood and personal life? Artists and later writers will answer this question. In fact, Radha and his childhood become common themes in painting and poetry.

The Bhagavata Purana is an important text that describes the stories of Krishna's childhood. It claims that he was born from Vishnu's black hair. This explains the dark complexion of Krishna in paintings. He is also described as a mischievous child. He faces several demons that threaten his life. The first is Putana who kills infants by offering them poisoned nipples. Krishna suckles them, but instead of being affected by the poison, he literally sucks the life out of Putana, and in so doing, he rids the world of a demon. This is another way that his power is demonstrated.

Krishna also exerts power over women. His beauty is unmatched and "the cowgirls find his presence irresistible and despite the warnings of morality and the existence of their husbands, each falls utterly in love with him" (36). Perhaps his power over women is an allegory for his power over the world. The attraction felt by the women represents human yearnings to be closer to the divine. With an allegorical interpretation of the many stories of Krishna, one can begin to understand the influence the stories have on artists, poets, and on popular religion.

In one story, the women who are attempting to gain Krishna's favor bathe nude in the river to cleanse themselves of sin, thus, making themselves more acceptable to his divine passion. Krishna seizes this opportunity and steals their clothes. For the women to be able to have their clothes returned, they must expose their bodies to him. In this way, the text is suggesting that one must expose all to Krishna-that is, nothing should be hidden from God. True devotees expose all secrets to gain Krishna's favor. In the depictions of this scene in paintings, artists are able to paint the nude female form. According to Archer, this is a rarity in most Indian art.

Not only do women worship and adore Krishna, but men do as well. According to Archer, "Sudama's visit to Krishna is as much a parable of divine love as Krishna's dances with the cowgirls" (63). The painting on plate 19 in the book depicts the scene where Krishna washes Sudama's feet as a sign of respect. This represents the power of devotion to Krishna. Though Sudama is in rags and Krishna is in princely garments, Krishna hails him as a Brahman for unselfishly worshipping Krishna, hence illustrating the power behind loving devotion. Devotion without asking for anything in return is greatly rewarded, as seen when Sudama returns to his hut to find it replaced with a palace; no doubt, it is an award for his devotion.

All these stories solidify, for devotees, Krishna's reason for being. He is the protector and preserver of humanity and destined to kill demons (63). Thus, he is venerated in paintings and poetry. Since Krishna is the subject of such media, the importance of his role in popular Hinduism becomes apparent. Though worship of Krishna seems to emphasize his later deeds and princely grandeur, these media concentrate on all aspects of Krishnaincluding his childhood to represent all the characteristics of his true nature.

In a poem that describes the incident when Radha becomes angered at Krishna for his sexual acts with other women, the notion of pride is explored. Krishna says to Radha, "O loved one, O beautiful, give up that baseless pride against me" (81). Her pride is ungodly, unfounded, and will not lead to salvation. Thus,Krishna's actions with the other women, despite his relationship with Radha, are justified. His passion is divine and is an exalted experience that is to be experienced by all. Therefore, any feelings of jealousy and rage are because of pride. To fully devote herself to God, she must abandon all pride, which, consequently, is a common theme in popular Krishna bhakti.

Many poets such as Vidyapati, Chandi Das, and Govind Das concentrate on the experience of ecstasy between Radha andKrishna. They often describe the experience from three points of view. A common perspective taken by the poets is Krishna's perspective. Krishna is given the first person and he describes Radha's beauty and the erotic feelings he is experiencing. Radha's perspective is also taken into account by describing her passionate thoughts. Another common perspective is that of the witness. The poets "even became the unseen viewer of their rapturous exchanges, comforting Radha… or egging her on to appease her hungry lover" (84-85).

Paintings were often commissioned by royalty or other wealthy patrons. A patron did this for one of several reasons. One is that the patron was a pious devotee and usually funded the project at great costs. This allowed the artist to apply his own style and expression to the art. However, some patrons sponsored paintings out of admiration for the stories. Hence, they were not as dedicated and often funded less than the devotees. These patrons often hindered artists' expressions; thus, the artists simply duplicated existing styles. Despite that, many paintings and murals stimulated interest in Krishna and proliferated Krishna
bhakti.

Paintings of Krishna were often influenced by many styles. Human contours and a bold style is a product of Jain influence. The Jains often painted their religious figures such as Mahavira with eyes larger in proportion to the face and ladies' drapery fanning out in great angular twists (96). Similarly, Western Indian paintings of Krishna utilized these same techniques. However, it is likely that Muslim dynasties aided in spreading the art forms of Krishna. The sixteenth century became a popular time for painting. Often it was a Muslim who commissioned the art. Though in their version of Krishna, there were few references or scenes of him as a God. Instead, Krishna was portrayed as a warrior hero. Also, he was portrayed as an eloquent prince, but rarely as a God. For the Muslim dynasties this signified a change of roles for
Krishna. He became a legendary hero rather than a divine being. However, this belief remained almost entirely with the Moguls, and usually did not change the opinions of the Hindu masses.

By the eighteenth century, styles in paintings began to change. "The greatest emphasis was placed on elegance of pose" (107). Krishna and Radha began to be portrayed with more flowing forms. Harsh forms of previous artists gradually became abandoned and replaced with more natural forms. Passion and love were often emphasized by the new techniques. Radha's form often indicated a strong sense of intimacy and courtly elegance. Krishna began to be posed in sexually provocative positions such as the protruding of his hips or standing with one foot crossing the other.

Concepts, patrons, and dynasties have influenced the emphasis and styles of Krishna in paintings and poetry. Passion remains a tool for artists' and poets' expressions. Radha and Krishna 's other consorts continue to be the focal point of these media. Divine passion and devotion to God are represented in the figures of Radha and Krishna. Though the two seem to break every cultural norm, it is acceptable and a sign of true devotion. Also, the many stories of Krishna contained in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana become important elements in art. Although changing attitudes and new concepts will influence art and poetry, these media will remain a powerful expression of Krishna bhakti.

References

Archer, W. G. The Loves of Krishna in Paintings and Poetry. New York: Grove Press, North Dakota.