Perspectives

John Brodus Watson, B.F. Skinner and Edward C. Tolman are all behaviorists in psychology and each has a unique perspective on psychology and the field of behaviorism. Watson is in most eyes the founder of behaviorism. Skinner is the name psychologists look to for the explanation of operant conditioning and Tolman is the one behaviorist who incorporates cognition into strict behavioral study. The perspectives of these three are important in the history of psychology and perhaps the most important in defining psychology as a natural science. Of these three scientists, the name of Watson crops up in almost all studies of psychology.

Watson

C.J. Goodwin (2005) shows the importance of Watson's contribution to psychology with these words, "Before Watson, there was the darkness of introspective psychology"(see section post-watsonian behaviorism, p. 309, para. 1). The subjective nature of an introspective psychology in this pre-Watsonian time kept psychology from being a pure objective science (Goodwin, 2005, p. 309).

C.J. Goodwin (2005) in his textbook Modern Psychology includes an excerpt of the manifesto of John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) which thoroughly explains the position of Watson and his definition of psychology as a science of behavior. His interpretation of a behaviorist's goal was to predict behavior and gain control of behavior. Of all psychologists, Watson was the most adamant about moving psychology from an introspective science (clearly subjective in his mind and hardly a true science) to an objective observation science with a base of empirical evidence. He strongly felt the failure of psychology to reach the status of a natural science was because psychology was full of researchers whose findings had faulty introspection. In other words, the findings of many researchers had a base of feelings rather than clear provable observation. Watson found encouragement from the student of Titchener with the name of Pillsbury who gave a definition of psychology as the science of behavior. Watson did not believe structuralism nor functionalism was adequate as an approach to psychology and instead felt psychology should have the approach of the study of stimuli-response. (p.294-298)

B.F. Skinner

C.J. Goodwin (2005) gives a clear explanation of the perspective of B.F. Skinner through an excerpt from Skinner's own text Science and Human Behavior (1953). Skinner is a behaviorist and his research is specific to the study of operant conditioning. He differentiates between classical conditioning and operant conditioning explaining that reflexive behavior whether conditioned or not has in its main concern physiology within an organism. This study thus is not as practical as the study of how and what effect behavior has on the world around us. Along with Skinner asserts is the probability that behavior will reoccur through the result of such behavior. Skinner explains that behavior operates on the environment to produce results thus the term operant conditioning. His study of operant conditioning shows the requirement of reinforcement to continue to get a response. The response to stimulus does not become independent of the stimulus and this response varies if stimulus has any change in its form. In this way, a response can be the case of study first to determine the stimulus. (p. 329-334)

One important difference between Skinner and other psychologists is his attempt to propose a society, which has a base in the results of his experiments. In 1948, Skinner brought forth his ideas of a utopian society with the publication of the story Walden Two (Goodwin, 2005, p. 337).

Skinner felt operant conditioning was the basis of society and thus should be in use to control behavior in a more positive way to bring about happiness. His utopian idea became the topic of discussion in universities in many fields and not only within psychology. The utopian ideas in this story were popular since life in Walden Two seems perfect. However, the very nature of controlled behavior does not lend to the idea of democracy. In addition, this author believes the happiness which seems evident in Walden Two is at the expense of individuality and creative thought. This popularity of the book Walden Two certainly brought his ideas on behavior to many people. However, the book was controversial and even blatantly condemned because of association of freedom and behavior (Rutherford, 2003 as cited by Goodwin, 2005, p. 338).

Tolman

According to C.J. Goodwin (2005), Edward C. Tolman (1886-1959) has a unique perspective of behaviorism with the title of Purposive Behaviorism. The uniqueness of Tolman's perspective lies in his explanation that behavior is more than the sum of its parts. He explains through the results of his studies on learning that man and animal are more than the sum of stimulus and its variance. Tolman brings forth the theory the goal of the organism has influence on the response. He asserts the human or animal learns a map of the environment and adapts its plan to accomplish a goal. This assertion lends to describing Tolman's theories as being evolutionary.

Tolman also brought forth the idea of intervening variables. Intervening variables are factors, which intervene between a stimulus and the response. He also asserts animals form a cognitive map of environment such as that of a maze. He found the learning of this map happens whether or not reinforced with a reward such as food. He calls this latent learning. Tolman's use of words such as cognitive and goals are not part of a strict behaviorist's vocabulary. (p. 314-318)

Comparison

In comparing the perspectives of Watson, Skinner and Tolman the first point to consider is the view of a behaviorist. This view is psychology has not reached the view of being a pure science specifically because of its lack of empirical study. All three of these figures in the history of psychology base their studies in tests on animals and humans. The results of these studies are clearly observable . This insistence on the only true data being observable is what differentiates them from other figures in the field of psychology.

Both Watson and Skinner are pure behaviorists and believe words such as cognition, the mind, consciousness and unconsciousness are not words of the true field of psychology as a natural science. Watson, Skinner and Tolman all assert that psychology is the study of behavior. Tolman is the only one of three that deviates from pure behaviorism as Watson defines. He of the three is the only one who asserts that behavior is adaptive through the cognitive functions of animal and human. In this, Tolman aligns himself to evolutionary psychology. His assertion that goals and intervening variances are key factors influencing results sets him apart from Watson and Skinner.

Skinner specifically rejects this idea saying allowing the idea of intervening factors leads to explanatory fictions (explaining stimuli-response through a hypothetical internal factor) (Goodwin, 2005, p. 334).

Watson and Skinner stick closely to the idea that all action in life can be understood through the study of stimuli-response and response-stimuli. Tolman on the other hand believes the cognitive mapping of the environment through latent learning along with the goal of the subject influences the outcome of any response to stimuli (Goodwin, 2005, p. 315).

Watson, Skinner and Tolman all made an important influence on modern day psychology. Psychology in America is known as having its base in behavioral psychology. This definition of psychology came through the efforts of behaviorists like Watson, Skinner and Tolman. In addition, the importance of the contributions of these three psychologists to all other branches of psychology should not be overlooked. Psychology of today is increasing looking to empirical research to prove theories. This tendency has been greatly enhanced through the work of behaviorists such as Watson, Skinner and Tolman.

Conclusion

Watson, Skinner and Tolman are all behaviorists and thus believe in proof through observation. Watson is one of the founders of behaviorism in psychology. Skinner along with Watson is a purist in his belief in behaviorism exemplified through his study of operant conditioning. Tolman like Watson and Skinner is a behaviorist and thus believes psychology is a science of the study of behavior and must hold its base in observable experiments. However, Tolman with his ideas of intervening variables and the influence of goals in the response from stimuli deviates from strict behaviorism that Watson and Skinner define. Finally, the three behaviorists Watson, Skinner and Tolman all made a dramatic influence on the psychology of today and will remain important figures in the roots of psychology as a natural science.

References

Goodwin, C. J. (2005). A history of modern psychology (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.