Philosopher Position Summary for Ethics

An understanding of ideas, values, or concepts should guide one's decision making and substantiate what one believes to be the best for society and others. Individuals derive the basis of this understanding from ethics, which in turn, guides one's actions. However, no distinct collection of ethical principles or collection of moral concepts exists to aid in decision-making. Individuals ought to prepare to utilize logical and applicable methods in decision-making, particularly in circumstances where an apparent right-and-wrong answer does not exist (Beckner, 2004).

The thoughts, understanding, and knowledge of early ethic philosophers influenced later ethic philosophers, both offer guidance to questions and practical concerns of how to construct the best decisions possible These concepts are important in what individuals consider right and wrong and are useful today (Beckner, 2004). The following treatise will identify four ethics philosopher and review their positions. A matrix, with a supportive narrative, will also be included to analyze each philosopher's school of thought and their contributions to current ethical thinking.

Plato

Plato believed that moral concepts are understandable only in an environment of social structure. An individual's position in life, and fulfilling the responsibilities of that position, relate to the "good" in life. Consequently, a social structure that would benefit everyone could develop. Plato contented that happiness was linked to the obligation for individuals to be virtuous, and to live a life corresponding to those virtues. However, these virtues could only be obtained by a small number of individuals who possessed the necessary skills and training and then relayed them to individuals in the society (Beckner, 2004).

Plato also discerned that eternal life was something that is given in return for good and the notion that the capability to evaluate other individuals exists in the wise and good individual who, by means of pedagogy and knowledge, has come to realize and formulate the best decision. Plato wanted to identify the attributes of an action or group of actions, which indicates that the action is just. His desire was not to have a record of action, but decisive factors for including or not including an action. In addition, Plato attempted to demonstrate that justice originates in the state, and subsequently in the soul. He indicated the principle features of a state in which all fundamental needs are provided for; this includes three classes of citizens, craftsman and laborers to make the material requisites of society; soldiers to protect the state; and leader to systematize social structure (Beckner, 2004). Furthermore, Plato suggested that in justice all men obtain equal proportions of what he generates, and will complete the purpose for which he is best suited. According to Plato, "A just man is a man in just the right place, doing his best, and giving the full equivalent of what he receives" (Beckner, 2004, p. 36). A society with just men is a well-balanced and effective society, suitable for survival.

Aristotle

Aristotle believed that the study of ethics is joined to the circumstance of being happy or the universal welfare of mankind, at the same time acknowledging the variation in views that occur. Aristotle's endeavors are still functional today although discrepancies may emerge with efforts to interpret happiness. Aristotle thought that happiness is an individual's supreme good, the objective to which all human activities add to when correctly completed (Beckner, 2004). Happiness is attained through being occupied with proper activities and by displaying virtues in all facets of life. The result of living a good life will be happiness; however, there will be some instances of chance, but also instances that are subject to and individual's control. Aristotle accentuates the significance of values or virtues and how each is an element in making right choices (Beckner, 2004).

The virtues proposed by Aristotle are still relevant today, prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. Prudence is the realistic skill to recognize and formulate the right choice in particular conditions. Justice consists of fairness, honesty and promise keeping. Fortitude is the courage to take the right action in problematic situations. Temperance possesses the willpower to manage every human obsessions and physical pleasures (Beckner, 2004; Vassallo, 2004). Aristotle contended that the competency to judge is a feature of the wise and good individual who, during the course of teaching and knowledge, has learned to make optimal decisions. Aristotle viewed contemplation as a divine pursuit through which an individual may achieve happiness (Beckner, 2004).

Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes believed that the fundamental stimulus of human behavior is self-preservation, which results in disagreements among individuals. He contemplated that an individual's decisions of good or evil are centered on three forms of purpose, appetite (attraction to), aversion, and contempt (feelings of indifference). Hobbes contended that these forms are dependent on the position of a man and his body at a distinct time; continued existence develops into the basis of ethical behavior. Individuals enter into an agreement with a supreme authority to preserve peace and success. This agreement indicates that which is and is not just or ethical (Beckner, 2004).

Hobbes contends that individuals possess a psychological inclination to follow one's own interests, and as a result, are morally permitted to operate completely out of self-interest. However, to attain self-centered goals over time, one must evade actions or matters that prevent one from our reaching those goals. According to Pojman (as cited in Beckner, 2004) Hobbes is a supporter of universal ethical egoism in which asserts that individuals should enact what will make the most of one's anticipated usefulness or result in one's own happiness, even if that signifies hurting others. This practice is not viewed as egotistical but as advisable, supporting continuing benefits over temporary benefits. Universal ethical egoism recommends that individuals succeed in life and in order to do this settlement of differences are needed. In addition, to some degree all individuals must relinquish some freedoms and work with others to accomplish one's goals (Beckner, 2004).

John Locke

John Locke recognized a lot of Hobbes's beliefs and allocated primary consideration to senses and reason suggesting that individuals are born with a "blank slate" for a mind (Beckner, 2004, p. 13). Locke suggested that an individual's decisions of good and evil are simply suggestions of the pleasure or pain produced in individuals by relevant materials or the thought of relevant materials. Something that provides an individual pleasure is referred to as good and what provides an individual pain is referred to as evil. In addition, pleasure and pain are the foundations for love, hate, joy, sorrow, hope, fear, despair, anger, envy, etc. which are basically forms of pleasure and pain arising in an individual's mind from resulting in our minds from diverse contemplations of good and evil (Beckner, 2004).

Locke implied the existence of three types of moral law: divine law, civil law, and the law of opinion. Divine law is identified by natural reason or by revelation and reveals an individual's responsibilities and sins. Civil law is arranged by political societies to establish guilt or innocence pertaining to civic concerns. Law of opinion determines goodness and evil by the rules and practices of a specific time, place, and society.
Locke contemplated that an individual's notions of good and evil are a product of both sensory and rational encounters. Individuals learn from these encounters and establish the morality of particular events using associations and deductions. Locke asserted that one could make use of mathematics as a pattern to determine moral decisions; distinct conduct could be construed as either right or wrong by speculating on the association of fundamental principles to specific actions. He proposed that ideas supplied by impressions regarding the world around individuals and the expectations of society are joined by reason to generate perceptions of right and wrong in a distinct situation (Beckner, 2004).

Plato believed that there is only one model of a just person and a common idea of goodness while Aristotle contended that there is no absolute universal idea of good. Plato also contended that good is desirable in its own right and as an outcome, this also applies to justice. Consequently, Aristotle contended that other elements come together to promote goodness, one virture does not stand alone. Individuals are not guaranteed happiness by living good but by striving for good in all aspects of life (Kemerling, 2007). Plato contended that by living a just life individuals will be happy while Aristotle contended that a virtuous life is rewarding (Beckner, 2004). Plato also believed that a common idea of goodness exists and that there is only one model of a just person. Consequently, Aristotle believed that an absolute idea of goodness did not exist and that individuals ought to examine the life of other individuals to learn how to act (Beckner, 2004; Kemerling, 2007). In current ethical thinking, individuals who live a truthful and honest life are happier than those that do not choose to live this way. However, contrary to Aristotle's thinking a universal idea of good does exist but varies among individuals.

Hobbes contended that an individual bases decisions on self-preservation and that good gives one pleasure. In many instances today this contention does hold true, ethical decisions are based on self-preservation even if that idea is selflessness (Kemerling, 2007). Hobbes also believed that society must contain leaders that enforce rules of society; this is also true in current ethical thinking (Beckner, 2004). Locke proposed that individuals are born with a blank slate, in current ethical thinking this would hold true, an individuals ethics are determined by factors that surround them such as parents, friends, religion, etc. illustrating how right and wrong behaviors are learned (Beckner, 2004). However, Locke's notion that anything producing pleasure is good and anything that produces pain is evil may not align with today's ethical thinking. For instance, having a child produces a great deal of pain but is not normally seen as evil. Locke's laws do hold true with current ethical thinking. Divine law reveals an individual's responsibilities and sins. Civil law is arranged by political societies to establish guilt or innocence pertaining to civic concerns. Law of opinion determines goodness and evil by the rules and practices of a specific time, place, and society (Beckner, 2004).

Conclusion

Ethics is the study of moral obligations and the examination of ethical dilemmas (Furman, 2004; Stefkovich & O'Brien, 2004). Plato, Aristotle, John Locke and Thomas Hobbes are all ethics philosophers who provide a framework for the study of ethics and for current ethical thinking (Becker, 2004). There is a change between the concepts of Plato to Aristotle. These two ethics philosopher disagreed on the eternalness of principles and values by which human nature and efforts can be judged. However, both maintained a similar view of God (Kemerling, 2007).

Locke and Hobbes agreed that society needs a ruler to guide individuals; however, Hobbes believed that one person should rules whereas Locke believed that people should establish the government. Hobbes's ideas of good centered on principles of pleasure and pain. Consequently, Locke contended that individuals could only understand what they have experienced and that individuals come into the world as good (Nosotro, 2007).

References

Beckner, W. (2004). Ethics for educational leaders. New York: Allyn & Bacon.

Furman, G.C. (2004). The ethic of community. Journal of Educational Administration,

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Kemerling, G. (2007). Philosophy Pages. Retrieved April 19, 2007 from

http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/4n.htm

Nosotro, R. (2007). Hobbes and Locke, men of influence. Retrieved April 20, 2007 from

http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/comp/cw20hobbes_locke.htm

Stefkovich, J.A. & O'Brien, M. (2004). Best interests of the student: An ethical model.

Journal of Educational Administration, 42. Retrieved April 16, 2007 from

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Vassallo, P. (2004, October). Nores on the methods of inquiry of Plato and Aristotle.

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Readings Page Univeristy of Phoenix, EDD 723.