Pornography Promoting Violence? A Sociological Deconstruction

"I feel I should introduce myself and tell you why I feel I am qualified to speak out against pornography. My name today is Linda Marciano. Linda Lovelace was the name I bore during a two and a half year period of imprisonment. For those of you who don't know the name, Linda Lovelace was the victim of this so called victimless crime. Used and abused by Mr Traynor, her captor, she was forced through physical mental and sexual abuse, and often at gunpoint and threats to her life, to be involved in pornography. Linda Lovelace was not a willing participant but became the sex freak of the 70's".

This was Ms Marciano's opening statement to the public hearing on pornography held by the Everywoman Ltd group in 1983. The hearings where held in America and where designed to add pornography to the Discrimination against Women Act based on the premise that pornography and sexual violence can be closely linked. Many influential feminist writers participated in this hearing and with reference to the relevant literature; this paper will address how sociology might analyse the arguments regarding pornography and male sexual violence towards females. It will not attempt to draw a concise conclusion regarding the argument; instead, it will detail how core sociological dichotomies may be utilised to examine this notion.

Perhaps it would be beneficial to first outline what sexual violence is with regards to pornography and the debate in hand. Donnerstein et al (1987) believe there are 3 main categories of violence within the genre of pornography. The first is referred to simply as 'Violent Pornography' (P. 4). This is any material where a man is depicted using force against a woman for sexual gratification and has a 'positive outcome' in that the scenes depicted are supposed to be pleasurable for the female. The second is referred to as 'Non-explicit Sexual Aggression'. This may include a rape scene but could be suitable for television as genitalia is not visible. The third category is referred to as 'Sexualised Explicit Violence against Women'. This focuses on graphical violence - including rape - but without the positive outcome mentioned in category one.

The first sociological dichotomy to be addressed is the Structure/Agency debate. To outline, Structure is viewed as the recurrence of any social behaviour. Within society we are required to adhere to certain rules and norms and it is argued that these behaviours have a constraining effect on the individual. In everyday settings, we are subject to these rules i.e. we adhere to the laws and unwritten rules of society. Agency however, refers to how the individual exercises their own choices in everyday society. This free will is dependant on the degree of constraint the individual experiences within a social structure. Our ability to execute this 'free will' can be limited by various factors including poverty and as Walsh discusses, the structure imposed by a oppressive political state.

As sociologists, it is clear that the observations of social structures are paramount in our studies, a point which Walsh (1998) makes. Walsh progresses to ask whether human interaction creates society or alternatively, whether relationships are an external factor which determines behaviour. In this chapter on structure and agency, Walsh makes it clear you cannot have agency without structure and vice versa, subsequently, Walsh details the different approaches for each notion and evaluates the arguments.

The Structuralist perspective believes human sociality is created by the social habitat in which we exist and places a great deal of importance on the work of Durkheim (1964). Durkheim suggested society was 'Sui Generis', that is, he believed society existed in its own right. The social conditions created by modern society in turn create what Durkheim terms 'social facts', these social facts are seen as 'pattern of actions' which make up the structures in society. Subsequently, Durkheim and functionalism suggest that in order for a social life to be present, there are fundamental conditions within society that we have to comply to. In order for this to take place, structures are created. These societally constructed structures consist of individuals who each perform particular roles. The role the individual assumes determines how they will interact within the structure. It is suggested within this approach, that it is not the individual who uses culture to explain their world, instead, Walsh notes:

"They are unconscious vehicles through which the culture speaks so that it determines how they are able to see and do things". (P. 11)

Structuralist sociology therefore views society as consisting of structures which exert force and control on the individuals within the society.

The individuals within society - or 'agents' - are believed to create and maintain society through their actions and interactions. This approach believes the individuals have a degree of control over their actions which are based on the rules and norms of society, basically, as Walsh put it:

"Structures are what people do together with one another". (P. 12)

The idea of agency believes that in order to understand interactions, we first have to define what interaction is. Walsh uses the allegory of crime and notes that we cannot understand criminality without first knowing what constitutes a crime. Welsh also notes that the organisation of social action requires the individual to make certain choices as there is always a range of possible responses, therefore, individuals are agents of their own action and are not just a 'product of the system' (P.13). However, the individual's actions are only analysable in relation to the structures in which they act. In relation to pornography and sexual violence, it could be argued that the individual is using his agency or 'free will' as a means for partaking in behaviour which is outside the realms of social norms.

Durkheim employed a dramatalurgical approach to the notion of agency in that he believed the individuals had roles and would act them out in society. Their performance is influenced by the structure in which they act and in turn, their action is controlled by the structure. The structure in this case could be society's view of violence.

Another theorist Walsh discusses in this chapter is Baudrillard (1988). After discussing Marxist theory, Walsh references how Baudrillard discusses how capitalism has now been replaced by the proliferation of the mass media. Walsh states:

"A world of hyper-reality is created in which everything is simulated in the sense that models created by images replace the real, e.g. ideal sex in sex manuals replaces sex, television news replaces the real news events themselves, politics is the packaging of candidates etc". (P. 30)

From this, we can infer that the consumer is viewing pornography and adapting what he views in his 'hyper-reality'. How the viewer sees sex in pornography is then transplanted into the viewers reality and it could be seen that if they view violence as synonymous with sex, they may be inclined to employ it during sexual encounters. Foucault's (1976) perspective challenges this as it believes the focus on the media ignores the importance of our post-modern society.

Literature relevant to structure includes the constitution for regulations in pornography. In 1970, there was an American investigation into the liberalization of censorship laws in pornography. Cutler (1988) outlined the arguments and the proposed legislation changes suggested by both government and theorists alike. The arguments against pornography included that - at that current moment in time - pornography supported organised crime, caused men to commit rape and caused men to commit other acts of sexual violence. Eminent feminist writer Andrea Dworkin also contributed to the discussion by suggesting tougher rules on porn and indicated that a ban may reduce the chances of the sexual violence. The governmental legislation could be viewed as the structure to which the individuals in society must adhere to and the laws underlying pornography are those which constrain the individual. It could also be argued that the individual who uses pornography and in turn commits crimes of sexual violence is operating out-with the accepted social structure.

In relation to agency, Wendy McElroy (1997) discussed her perspective of being both a feminist and possessing a pro-pornography stance. McElroy discusses the opposing views within feminism regarding pornography stating the she is 'pro-sex'. Whilst tackling what she deems degrading - an advert where a woman makes orgasmic noises - McElroy discusses how pornography can be both rewarding and empowering for women. She progresses to state that porn can provide the individual with:

"A panoramic view of the world's sexual possibilities, allows women to "safely" experience sexual alternatives and satisfies a healthy sexual curiosity" (P. 4)

It can therefore be argued that the individual's choice should dictate how they use and interpret porn. The free will they execute as agents then influences their behaviour and it has been shown in McElroy's work there is little evidence for an equation between pornography and sexual violence. The structure of law constrains what the viewer sees though the viewer must exercise agency in how they utilise pornography.

Dr Pauline Bart (1988) argued that porn socialised men into committing acts of sexual violence. She argued that the videos acted as a 'training video' on how to abuse women and that the only way to counteract this problem was to outlaw porn. Subsequently, Bart argued that pornography served to reinforce the male superiority in gender inequality. Our society has norms and accepted behaviours built through both structures and the individuals within it. It could therefore be argued that as the porn industry has grown, so has the acceptance of the acts within it. However, it could also be analysed from the perspective that the individual is using his own agency to function outside the constraints of society.

In relation to Bart's theory that pornography reinforces gender inequality, Joanne Entwhistle (1998) discusses the differences between our biologically determined sex and our sociologically constructed gender. The differences we possess as man and women are inscribed with culturally decided characteristics. Oakley (1974) defines sex and gender in the following manner:

"'Sex' is a word that refers to the biological differences between male and female: the visible difference in genitalia, the related difference in procreative function. 'Gender' however is a matter of culture: it refers to the social classifications into 'masculine' and 'feminine'." (P. 152)

Within our society, males and females are assigned different attributions regarding their sex i.e. boys are seen as aggressive and assertive whereas girls are seen as passive and gentle. It is clear that the ways in which these notions are approached are paramount to feminism. Feminists argue that the employment of 'biological' interpretations leads to the assumptions that the divisions between sexes is natural and therefore, enduring. This suggests that the divisions are acceptable although many argue there does not have to be a division.

Central to the discussion regarding sexual difference is the body itself. Entwhistle highlights how the body has been largely ignored within sociology despite the fact that our society is made up of a world of bodies. Biological characteristics of the body have been studied for years as a means of explaining or interpreting social behaviour which leads to human nature being classified into types. However this 'biologism' has inherent problems. Apart from being viewed as methodologically weak, the accounts biologism produces indicates that what is natural cannot be changed. McNay (1992) discusses how the body and biology are utilised to discuss characteristics between men and women:

"Masculine characteristics can be seen to be related to dominant perceptions of the male body, i.e. firmness, aggression, strength." (P. 17)

A noticeable separation can be viewed between social constructivist feminists and essentialists. Social Constructivists do not adhere to the belief that gender differences are based on biology while essentialists believe that biology is essential in that 'true womanhood' is biologically underpinned.

In the section detailing society and sexual differences, Entwhistle discusses how the reproductive roles of men and women are used to interpret the social differences between men and women and quotes Sydie (1987) in doing so:

"The appeal to a 'natural' difference between men and women based on reproductive capacity of women has provided the framework for dichotomised views of the nature of the sexes and the assumption that hierarchal relations of male superiority and female subordination are justified". (1987)

Entwhistle progresses to discuss how all cultures see women as closer to nature than men based on the ability to give birth and this adds to the argument of gender stereotypes.

Feminism is obviously central in this discussion of sex and gender and Entwhistle discusses this in a section relating to radical feminists. Radical feminists are concerned with the power men have over women's body and discuss how men are envious of the women's ability to give birth, and thus, must control it.

As was mentioned previously, this debate around pornography and sexual violence has been studied by many feminists, including the influential Andrea Dworkin. Dworkin discusses the aggressive role of the male and the passive role of the female in her book Men Possessing Women (1981). Dworkin states:

"For the male, sex involves an objective act of his doing but for the female it does not. As an act in which he is playing the leading role (leading, that is, within the confines of copulatory process) it is both superficially and deeply important to the male that it be carried out without faltering. Her role is passive." (P. 107)

This male dominant role is often portrayed in pornography and it can be seen that men take this example and apply it to personal relationships. Bart (1988) discusses how she was approached by a student on her campus that required porn for the freshman stating:

"The freshmen guys do not know how to relate to women and you have to show them" (P.31)

This is both a frightening and intriguing thought. The notion that these young men used pornography to show others how women should be treated is both deprived and astounding. The viewers of these pornographic materials may have been led to believe that the actions taking place are normal and justifiable and this relates back to the notion that pornography reinforces male patriarchy over the passive female.

This theory outlines the reinforcement of gender characteristics and the biological differences between the sexes. It can be argued that the socialised male in a patriarchal society views women as passive and thus, is easier to coerce into sexual practices they might not normally engage in. It should be noted here, that within this dichotomy, there is often a case of over-generalisation to the neglect of either viewpoint.

Helen Thomas (1998) discusses the dichotomy of Culture/Nature. Nature refers to natural world before society influences it whereas, culture is the social world created by its members. Durkheim again plays a part in this dichotomy as it refers again to his theory of social facts. This theory of social facts has three basic characteristics; first, they are 'external' to the individual, second, they are 'typical' and enduring throughout society and finally, they 'constrain' the individual (P.110). Therefore, it can be seen that sociology must study, characterise and offer an account of how social facts are constructed and their importance in supporting social order.

Classically, German social thought saw clear distinctions between the natural sciences and human interactions. The 'Verstehn' method was developed by Dilthey (1880) following the inherent problems between natural and cultural sciences and stood to explain how human behaviour could be understood outside of a naturalistic model. It served to explain the causes of social action.

This approach also discusses the notion of Universality. This is the idea that a situation can be explained with the same meaning and same significance regardless of where it takes place and when. In reference to pornography, a now world-wide industry, it could be argued that the consumption of sexually violent material can be analysed with this dichotomy, regardless of the location or time.

Bodily expression is central to the nature/culture debate and as time progressed, a sub-debate arose around the 'learnt' versus the 'innate'.

As Thomas states:

"the aim has been to demonstrate that our routine bodily behaviours are relative to the culture in which they are performed and that they are learnt as opposed to being natural" (P.115)

It could therefore be seen that men learn sexual violence through pornography.

Though theorists had noted that bodily behaviour cannot be interpreted without referring to it in its original context, they did not focus on how the body is viewed in society. Perhaps it can be viewed that those males using violent pornography view the female body in different terms to those who do not. Goffman (1972) looked at 'social rules' for appropriate behaviour in public. Hertz, Mauss and Douglas (1973) utilised Durkheim's perspectives on the social construction of knowledge and applied it to the study of the body with Hertz arguing that the body is socially constructed. He believed society attributed symbols to the human body though they are often viewed as natural. Hertz also illustrated that our bodily behaviours are socially controlled and added that what we see as natural behaviour is actually socially bound. The viewer of pornography could be seen to be acting outside of societal norms as violence is not acceptable though pornography may lead the viewer to think that sexual violence is.

Douglas (1973) believed that the body represented society and vice versa adding that the physical body and the social body reinforce one another:

"She [Douglas] suggests that people come to know their own societies through the rules and rituals that are routinely enacted upon and are expressed in the care and attention that is afforded to it" (P. 119)

It can therefore be seen that the body is treated as a symbol of society. Ergo, it could be seen by some, that the female body in male society is a symbol of the practices exhibited in pornography.

Robert Jensen (2005) discusses the possibility that porn can be an important factor in shaping a male dominant view of sexuality and in turn can 'provide a training manual for abusers' (P. 2). Jensen notes however, there is no direct correlation between all pornography users becoming sexually violent. Jensen notes that in some cases:

"If a person has relatively aggressive sexual inclinations resulting from various personal and/or cultural factors, some pornography exposure may activate and reinforce associated coercive tendencies and behaviours". (P. 4)

Scott and Cuvelier (1993) studied American men's magazines Hustler and Playboy and found that Hustler had a higher content of sexual violence in its photo shoots. Over a 5 year period they found no change in the magazine's portrayal of women and argued their work 'refutes the alleged increase in sexually violent portrayals' (P.357). The video and DVD market revolutionised the pornography industry meaning it became the one of the most powerful revenue generators in the world. The increased sales meant that pornography was being made available to more people. This worried many theorists as it may have meant an increase in sexually violent behaviour. Again this can be related back to Bart's notion that pornography socialises men into a male dominant view of sexuality.

In relation to culture, pornography can be viewed as constructed by a male governed society and thus objectifies women as natural vehicles for male fantasies. Nature however, could rationalise sexual behaviour as natural until society converted it into a cultural object. Once it has become a cultural object, it is open to interpretation by individuals.

In conclusion, we must address some issues not usually raised in relation to the pornography debate. First, it is clear that not all pornography is sexually violent. Explicit material can range from tabloid models to consenting adult education videos. As McElroy (1997) pointed out in her study, not all female 'sex workers' are coerced or forced into the porn industry, and in some cases, the females are producing the pornography for themselves and thus, benefiting financially and personally (P. 4). However, it should not be forgotten that this is not always the case throughout the industry and its previous history. An interesting point is that the studies carried out in this field rarely account for female consumption of porn or the objectification of men.

The dichotomies mentioned in this paper serve as a useful tool for analysing this debate although they cannot wholly agree on the mechanisms for use of pornography and its link to sexual violence. It should also be noted that the dichotomies have intrinsic problems within their debates. Structure cannot exist without agency as they both rely on each other for sustenance. In relation to the Sex/Gender and Culture/Nature debates, it is often noted there is an over-emphasis of one of the particular approaches. In the Culture and Nature approach, there is often too much importance placed on the social by the constructivists and the naturalists are often seen to be reinforcing structural inequalities. With regards to Sex and Gender, the biological basis of the body is often over-looked. However, having said this, these approaches provide an insightful explanation into whether pornography promotes violence.

The arguments that arose regarding pornography and the promotion of violence, whilst intriguing, lack validity. They make sweeping generalisations about the users of pornography, their sex and how they interpret what they view. It can therefore be concluded that although there is evidence for pornography leading to sexual violence, it is not an inevitability.