Preschooling and Adolescents

Social interaction between preschoolers would, on the surface, appear to be much different than social interactions between adolescents. Using this as a context for research, this investigation explores current literature on the process of social interaction in both groups. Drawing on this research it is possible to demonstrate that while there are some differences between how preschoolers and adolescents relate to their peer groups, there are also some notable similarities.

Introduction

The process of human development is one that is rooted in a wide range of social, cognitive and physical development domains. Thanks to the advent of modern psychology and sociology, researchers are now able to better understand how these domains impact the individual and how each is critical for the overall development of the child. As such, understanding the development of the child requires an integral understanding of each of these domains and the specific behaviors and actions that take place within them.

With the realization that human growth and development takes places at various stages in the individual's life it is pertinent to compare stages of development such that differences can be noted. To this end, this investigation considers the development of both preschool aged children and adolescents with respect to the issue of socialization. Specifically, the research seeks to answer the question: how do persons in the developmental stage interact socially? Given the marked difference in age between preschoolers and adolescents, it is hypothesized that the research will show that there are significant differences in socialization among these two groups. In particular, preschool children have not developed the verbal skills that they need in order to effectively communicate with their peers while adolescents have. As such, it is assumed that preschoolers will rely more on nonverbal actions in their communications while adolescents will be more verbally responsive.

Through a careful consideration of what has been written about socialization in both preschoolers and adolescents a more integral understanding of the differences that exist between these two groups will be elucidated. Further, by examining these two groups it will be possible to determine if the socialization patterns that are developed in preschool aged children will persist to any degree into adolescence. Thus, a rudimentary overview of socialization from preschool to adolescence will be effectively garnered.

Results

Preschool Children and Social Interaction

Reviewing the specific context of the social interactions that take place among preschool aged children, Driscoll and Carter (2004) observe that developing social competence is an important issue for young children. According to these authors: "Social competence can be defined as the ability of a child to appropriately choose and effectively achieve individual social goals. This includes initiating and maintaining fulfilling interpersonal relationships with peers. Social competence is reflected in specific social behaviors that occur during interaction. Thus, social interaction is the foundation of social competence" (p. 7). These authors go on to note that social competence in early childhood is critical for the development of social skills that will facilitate the development of relationships in adulthood. Without social competence, children as they mature, will find it difficult to establish meaningful and lasting relationships.

In addition to noting the importance of social competence in the development of preschool aged children, Driscoll and Carter also examine the specific methods educators working with preschool aged children have developed to facilitate interaction. As noted by these authors, educators typically utilizes physical objects-i.e. toys-to encourage preschool aged children to interact with one another. In this group, the use of verbal communication or instruction does not appear to work as well as providing the child with a toy and encouraging another child to seek out play activity based on the toy. What this data clearly suggests is that nonverbal and verbal cues are necessary to entice preschool aged children to interact with one another. While this does not imply that preschool aged children will not naturally interact, what it does effectively show is that specific nonverbal cues may be necessary to develop social interaction in this group.

In a similar vein of inquiry, Kutnick (2005) examined the specific impact of positive social interactions among preschool children with respect to their cognitive development. According to Kutnick, interest into this specific issue has proliferated in recent years because "social/interactional and relational underpinnings of friendship re similar to the social relational aspects that enhance cognitive development and may support learning in schools" (p. 523). What this effectively suggests is that the social interactions that occur between preschool aged children may do more than just facilitate the emotional growth and development of the child; when examined in quantitative terms Kutnick argues that positive social interaction can have a positive impact on cognitive development. The reverse has also proven to be true.

In an effort to better explicate this process on a theoretical level, Kutnick goes on to note that, "Friendship establishes a relational basis of mutual support, thus, children with friends make the transition into school and between year groups, more easily than children without friends" (p. 523). In addition, Kutnick argues that the specific context of learning that takes place in the development of friendships between two children has been explained in two theoretical settings. First, Kutnick argues that Piaget's theory of mutuality has been used to understand cognitive development in the process of friendship. Under the perspective of mutuality, "peers working together on a common problem allow them to resolve differences between their perspectives, which enhances the cognitive understanding of each child" (p. 523). The second theory of social interaction is based on work completed by Vygotsky. According to Kutnick, Vygotsky acknowledged that "interpersonal skills are necessary for the development of new knowledge and skills, and that it is quality relationships that provide the scaffold for cognitive enhancement" (p. 523).

Other authors examining the development of social interactions between preschool children have noted that increasing awareness of personal issues among this group can impact the manner in which social interactions can occur. According to Killen and Smetana (1999) personal issues have been noted to be important with respect to the child's sense of autonomy, sense of self and agency. When personal issues are involved in the context of social interactions between peers, this can have an impact on how the child responds in a given situation. With this in mind, these authors see the importance of addressing what specific personal issues impact social interaction as these issues provide insight into what prompts preschoolers to interact and engage with one another.

Utilizing this as a basis for research, Killen and Smetana sought to discern how personal issues impact the social interaction of preschool aged children in the classroom. The results of their investigation and observations show that when personal issues are involved in the context of interaction, preschool aged children were more likely to assert themselves in order to gain control. What this effectively suggests is that preschool aged children have some specific issues that they are sensitive about when it comes to interactions with peers and adults. Personal issues which can include such things as choice of food, clothes and other issues that relate directly to control over one's body are critical for the interactions that take place between preschool aged children.

Other researchers examining the specific social interactions that take place among preschool aged children have noted that peer imitation is a common tactic that facilitates social learning in this group. As noted by Garfinkle and Schwartz (2002) (p. 27). Although the specific context of the research developed by Garfinkle and Schwartz examines the use of peer imitation for the development of social interactions among preschool children with autism, these authors do note that peer imitation is one of the most prominent methods used by preschool children to direct behavior. In this process, children not only learn social rules that are applicable for successful social interaction and development, but also how to effectively remedy gaps in skills that could prevent successful social interaction.

When placed in this context, it becomes quite evident that the specific process of social interaction that is taking place between preschool aged children is quite complex. In addition to the fact that preschool aged children are seeking to establish relationships with which they are comfortable, the information provided by Garfinkle and Schwartz suggests that preschool aged children are able to effectively observe and evaluate the behavior of other children to discern if that behavior is socially appropriate. In cases where the child deems that behavior is acceptable, he or she will imitate the behavior. This process is one that is notably complex, suggesting that the cognitive processes that are occurring during this development are highly attuned to the social domain.

Synthesizing all of the research that has been presented on the social interaction of children at this stage, it becomes evident that children in the preschool stage are attempting to understand the social boundaries of acceptable behavior while still integrating their needs into this framework. Through the process of social interaction, preschool aged children not only learn how to effectively interact with one another but also utilize the experiences gained though social interaction as a means to build their cognitive development. While most preschool aged children are not consciously aware of this process, it is one that is both integral and essential to the social and cognitive development of children in this time period.

Adolescents and Social Interaction

With a basic overview of the current literature that has been conducted with respect to preschool aged children and social interaction examined, it is now possible to consider the issue of social interaction in the context of adolescents. Examining the basic context of the changes that occur as the individual transitions from childhood to adolescence Ryan (2000) makes the following observations: "This stage of life is replete with physical, cognitive, school, and social changes" (p. 101). Ryan further argues that many of the changes that take place during the course of adolescence are in some way impacted by the peers that surround the individual: "It is widely acknowledged that experiences with peers constitute an important developmental context for children and adolescents. Children's experiences with peers occur on several different levels: general interactions, relationships, and groups. Investigations regarding children's general interactions and relationships with their peers concern their social competence and popularity and are conceptually distinct from experiences in peer groups" (p. 101). What this clearly implies is that the specific context of the peer interactions that take place between the adolescent and his or her peer have a profound impact on shaping the behavior of the individual.

Other researchers examining the specific issues of socialization that take place in adolescents note that there is a strong correlation between the social and cognitive development of adolescents along gender lines during this stage of development. As noted by Pettitt (2004). "Gender differences in math (achievement domain) and intimacy and self-disclosure (social domain) tend to emerge or grow during adolescence after the age of twelve, with more significant differences appearing in high school" (p. 23). Pettitt goes on to argue that these specific changes are to some degree mitigated by the social interactions that take place among adolescents and their peers: "...gender-appropriate role expectations on the part of significant others become stronger and contribute to gender differences in achievement and social domains. The implications of puberty for gender socialization will very depending on individuals' perceptions of pubertal changes and their perceptions of socialization agents' expectations" (p. 23).

What this effectively suggests is that the cognitive and social development of the adolescent can be notably impacted by both gender roles and peer response to gender roles. If a female adolescent's group of peers has a specific image of what the adult woman should look like, these images will be absorbed by the female adolescent. While the adolescent is not directly imitating the behavior of her peers, she is incorporating their frameworks of femininity into her behaviors and actions. Thus, in this context, in becomes clear that peers have an overwhelming influence on the socialization of adolescents. Through this process of socialization, both girls and boys become more familiar with the adult gender roles that they will be expected to assume in a few years.

While the impact of peers on the socialization of the adolescent has been widely recognized as an important and integral part of the development process, Allen, Porter, and McFarland (2005) that the impact of socialization on the adolescent can be difficult to predict. According to these authors, adolescents that are well socialized into their peer groups-i.e. popular-run the risk of engaging in delinquent behaviors. "Extrapolations from childhood research suggest that popularity in adolescence should be a positive marker of adaptation to be encouraged and promoted. Yet, adolescents who are popular, and hence well socialized into their peer groups, also appear vulnerable to being socialized into the increasing levels of delinquent and drug-using behavior that become normative in peer groups during this period" (p. 747). When examined in this context, it becomes clear that even though it is evident that peer socialization is an important and integral part of adolescent development, it is difficult, if not impossible, to know for sure what the impact of socialization will be on the development of the adolescent.

Unfortunately, even though researchers have clearly identified the importance of peer relationships to the social and cognitive development of the adolescent, at this stage in development even the most positive social interactions can have negative consequences for the adolescent. In an effort to provide some insight into why this is so, Allen, Porter, and McFarland go on to note that:

Although popularity may be a marker of concurrent levels of adaptation in adolescence, it also appears likely to expose adolescents to the socializing influences of their peers over time. In adolescence, peer socialization influences may be particularly strong, but unlike in childhood and adulthood, the norms of peers in adolescents may not be entirely positive relative to those of the larger society (p. 748).

Because the dynamic of peer interaction changes so dramatically during adolescence, the impact of the peer group on the development of the adolescent can be something less than desirable in terms of large social values and norms. What this implies is that peer group influence over the adolescent notably transforms from childhood to adolescence.

Finally, Haynie and Osgood (2005) in their investigation of adolescent socialization and delinquency make the observation that the social interactions that take place between adolescents and their peers have an overwhelming impact on resultant behavior. As noted by these authors, "Adolescents spend much time with their friends, attribute great importance to them, and are more strongly influenced by them during this period than at any other time in the life course" (p. 1110). Although these researchers are quick to argue that the specific context of adolescent social interaction is highly mitigated by the influence of peers, Haynie and Osgood do note that the specific process by which this interaction takes place has not been quantified. However several theories have been postulated to explain this phenomenon. In particular, Haynie and Osgood note the power of symbolic interactionism and social learning theory.

Considering first the issue of symbolic interactionism, Haynie and Osgood note that under this theory the emphasis is one the "importance of the individual taking the perspective of others" (p. 1110). With respect to social learning theory these authors argue that, "Social learning theory focuses on reinforcement and modeling" (p. 1110). While the cognitive dimensions of social interaction clearly change as the individual develops into adolescence, some of rudimentary components that are explicated in the context of adolescent socialization theories bear a striking resemblance to some of the basic tools that are used by preschoolers in their social interactions.

Discussion

With an overview of the current literature on the development of adolescents completed, it is now possible to make some assessments about the similarities and differences between the social interactions that take place between preschoolers and adolescents. Examining first the similarities, it becomes evident that many of the social interactions that take place in preschool children are the same ones that take place in adolescents. The principle difference is that the interactions become more complex as the cognitive development of the child advances. In preschool children, for example, peer imitation is used as a means for children to mimic behavior seen as socially positive. In adolescence, this process is expanded such that individuals attempt to mimic behavior in a manner that will be acceptable to the peer group. While some degree of imitation is taking place, it is made more complex through cognitive development and physical development which makes gender stereotypes a more prominent part of social interaction.

Exploring the differences that exist between the social interactions of preschool children as compared to adolescents, it seems reasonable to argue that social interactions among preschool age children can be facilitated by physical stimulation by parents, teachers or other caregivers. This can be accomplished through the placement of toys or by arranging the play environment. Although the specific issue of physical intervention in the social interaction of adolescents is not explored in the literature, the paucity of information that exists with respect to this issue in adolescent social interaction suggests that physical intervention is not a salient means to initiate social interaction in this group. In short, if an adolescent in the A group had a new toy, this would not prompt an adolescent from the B group to interact with the A group. In preschool aged children, this would work.

The central hypothesis presented at the beginning of this investigation was that the interaction patterns of preschoolers and adolescents would be markedly different, with preschoolers relying more on nonverbal communication than adolescents. While the current research clearly suggests that nonverbal communication is an essential component of preschooler social interaction, the research also suggests that there are some commonalities between the social interactions that occur in each group. Although this is surprising given the assumptions made at the outset of this investigation, when one considers that the basic foundations of social interaction begin in preschool and follow through development, the fact that some aspects of social interaction remain part of the individual throughout the life span the findings of this research are right on target.

References

Allen, J.P., Porter, M.R., & McFarland, F.C. (2005). The two faces of adolescents' success with peers: Adolescent popularity, social adaptation and deviant behavior. Child Development, 76(3), 747-760.

Driscoll, C. & Carter, M. (2004). Spatial density as a setting even for the social interaction of preschool children. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 51(1), 7-37.

Garfinkle, A.N., & Schwartz, I.S. (2002). Peer imitation: Increasing social interactions in children with autism and other developmental disabilities in inclusive preschool classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22(1), 26-39.

Haynie, D.L., & Osgood, D.W. (2005). Reconsidering peers and delinquency: How do peers matter? Social Forces, 84(2), 1109-1130.

Killen, M., & Smetana, K.G. (1999). Social interactions in preschool classrooms and the development of young children's conceptions of the personal. Child Development, 70(2), 486-501.

Kutnick, P. (2005). Children's friendships and learning in school: Cognitive enhancement through social interaction? The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(4), 521-538.

Pettitt, L.M. (2004). Gender intensification of peer socialization during puberty. New Directions for Child & Adolescent Development, 2004(1206), 23-34.

Ryan, A.M. (2000). Peer groups as a context for the socialization of adolescents' motivation, engagement and achievement in school. Educational Psychologist, 35(2), 101-111.