Review About India: World Civilizations: Sources, Images, and Interpretations

One of the earliest Indus River civilizations is studied in "India, to A.D. 500" from Dennis Sherman, A. Tom Grunfeld, Gerald Markowitz, David Rosner, and Linda Heywood's book World Civilizations: Sources, Images, and Interpretations Vol.1. Like many of the other civilizations in the Mesopotamian area, the early Indian civilization was composed of a mixture of peoples. The Indian civilization studied in the chapter looks at a culture of people who stayed in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent when Aryans from Central Asia moved downward and developed a new culture. India's culture and historical legacy is different from many of the various other early civilizations because of its focus on spiritual enlightenment.

One of the inherent characteristics of Indian civilization is the caste system. The caste system is well documented in the primary sources in the "India…" chapter. The caste system was not an institutionalized form of oppression; rather, it was a social system based on birthright. The reasons for the castes, as studied in the chapter, were to ensure that the soul remains pure and to keep the different classes in the society apart for religious purposes. India is unique in the way that the societal structure is a result of the religion; religion was not established to promote a way of separating people or as a way to keep some peoples oppressed.

The eternal quest for spiritual enlightenment in India led to the development of intrinsic focused religions and philosophies unseen in many areas of the world. The chapter outlines the development of Hinduism and later Jainism and Buddhism.

The first source "The Lawbook of Manu: The Caste System" is a brief chapter describing the caste system. The source indicates exactly what each caste is supposed to do and behavior because of said caste. The duty of each caste is clearly shown in the source for a better understanding of what is entailed for each member of a specific caste. The deficiency in the source is the lack of information about the origins of the castes. The source describes the beginning of the castes, from the Lord, but does not indicate where the Brahmans came from (the mouth of God) or where the Kshatriya originated (arm of God). The lack of origins for the castes with the descriptions does not holistically describe the caste system in India. The source does not show India's quest for enlightenment as much as it dictates the different castes and duties. The source does not indicate why the castes exist.

The primary source "The Mahabharata" is a very comprehensive poem describing how a Brahman can attain peace and prosperity. The poem states clearly the steps one has to take on order to reach the divine, "…while engaged in the observance of his own duties, without doing any improper act, wealth comes to a peaceful Brahmana possessed of knowledge…" (p. 32) showing exactly the behaviors of Brahmans should aspire to. The poem is a model primary source showing India's quest for enlightenment by giving examples and advice on living a peaceful, fulfilling life.

"The Lawbook of Manu: Marriage and Sexual Activity" defines the rules of sexual activity for men in the caste system. The merits of the chapter included a description the types of women to be avoided when choosing a partner "marry a wife of the same caste…A Brahman who takes a Shudra women to his bed, goes to the lower course; if he beget a child by her, he loses his Brahmanhood…" (p. 33). The defects of the chapter arise in the lack of similar situations for Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, or Shudras. The source does not give an example for a Vaisyas (merchants) in relation to a woman from a different caste than his own. Much like "The Lawbook of Manu: The Caste System," the source describes the caste systems limits and rules without giving advice or example on how castes lead to an enlightened life.

The infamous "Kamasutra" is one of the most well known primary sources in the world because of its sexual themes. The source in the chapter shows strength in its descriptions for what is expected of women. Women are said to wait until marriage before engaging in sexual acts (remaining virgins). The source also gives a very detailed list of the types of women that are to be avoided as partners for men in any caste. The problem with the sources is that it lacks an explanation as to why some of the negative traits are deemed negative. One trait to be avoided by men is recluse in a woman. The source does not give implications for why a recluse is a poor choice in a mate.

Nonviolent teachings of Janism are studied in "The Book of Sermons: The Teachings of Jainism." The source describes the way in which one should live his or her life by not killing living things; otherwise the person's sins increase overtime. The source is a good source to show an edict of Jainism but lacks any further examination of the religion. The source is very short and mentions that when one learns the nature of life, he or she gets rid of karma. The source did not explain the concept of karma or how the concept of karma worked. This primary source would not be useful in introducing the religion of Jainism. This source is an excellent source to show India's quest for inner peace and enlightenment by describing the journey to karma; even though the source does not explain karma.

A great source on the origins of Buddhism is "The Life of Buddha: The Origins of Buddhism." Not only does the source explain the origins of the philosophy/religion, the chapter describes the very essence of Buddhism itself. The source describes the fundamental philosophies of Buddhism, "Surely if living creatures saw the results of all their evil deeds, they would turn away from them in disgust…" (p. 37) describing how people are ignorant and blind to the pain and suffering they create out of personal greed and self gratification. The source also describes the four noble truths that lead to Nirvana (an end to suffering and pain). Overall the source is a great introduction to the concept of Buddhism as well as an introduction to an historic figure and philosophy/religion. This primary source is the epitome of Indian soul searching. The source describes how, why, and the ultimate goal of Indians; religious transcendence.

The last of the primary sources in the chapter, "The Mahayana Tradition: The Compassion of a Bodhisattva" indicates the purpose of the Buddhist religion and how those who reach the final stage of Nirvana would come back to earth and help others to reach enlightenment in the form of a bodhisattva. The source does a good job in describing the philosophical and religious ideals of Buddhism, "I shall become the savior of all beings, and set them free from their sufferings" (p. 38). The source connects very well with the Indian theme of enlightenment by actually describing the process of enlightenment and the ultimate goal of many Indians.

The visual source "Gateway of Sanchi" shows Buddhist architecture and art but lacks any deeper significance. The gateway is not a symbolic structure to represent the gateway to enlightenment; rather, it was a way to keep Buddhism in people's everyday lives and maintain membership. The second visual source "Geography and Linguistic Divisions: The Indian Subcontinent" shows the geographic country of India but does not reflect the theme of enlightenment throughout Indian culture.

Secondary sources are interpreted views of history which helps students of history and cultures understand the essence of studied cultures. "The Ancient City of Harappa" is a secondary source which shows the everyday life of an Indian person through the study of archeology. The secondary source supports the assumption that Indians were in tune with the dominant religious and philosophical ideals at the time by stating "The only context in which physical aggression is depicted is on seals or tablets that show a man fighting a wild animal..." (p. 43). The quote indicates that aggression was not a prevalent occurrence in the daily life of an ancient Indian.

"Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture" is a secondary source studies the political structure of India through time. The source connects politics with religion, "The king shares this characteristic with learned and pious Brahmans and particularly holy and powerful ascetics" (p. 45). The source indicates that the rulers of India were as concerned with spiritual duty and enlightenment as were other citizens in the society. Religion was universal in India. Despite the caste system's inherit hierarchical structure in the many religions of India; religion served as a great equalizer because all people were seeking the same enlightenment.

The last secondary source "Cultural Continuity in India" exquisitely sums up the theme of the chapter and Indian society; quest for spiritual growth and enlightenment. The source indicate that the "Correct or right behavior is viewed as a personal responsibility or duty with a most significant meaning to Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains" (p. 47) showing that all people and religions/philosophies were searching for the same truths. The source sums up the whole chapter by restating the importance of spiritual and intrinsic growth in Indian growth.

Indian civilization has shown to be intriguing and interesting due to its unique journey towards enlightenment. Chapter 2 "India, to A. D. 500" contains many useful primary sources which highlight the intrinsic motivations of the society. India is a unique civilization of study which has outlasted many of the Indus River civilizations and continues to be a vibrant civilization today.