Romantic Literature of Nineteenth Century Europe

"Everything that has a beginning, has an end," isn't that how the saying goes? Following this philosophy, Romanticism was doomed from the start. However, while it lived it affected the arts immensely and when it was finally replaced by realism and impressionism it's legacy still lived on. Elements of romanticism can be found in the works of writers such as Mill, Marx, Dostoevsky, Mazzini, Morris, Zola, Freud and Marinetti.

To begin, romanticism is an extremely broad term; its use can imply anything and could be applied to nearly any element of the arts or even human nature itself. Romanticism began as the adverse reaction to science and the enlightenment; reason is the antithesis of romanticism. Wordsworth once quoted, "we murder to dissect." This is a good notion to follow, as people believed that learning and dissecting what makes up a being or object; they are killing the essence of it for rational comprehension.

The application of romanticism to history illustrates the versatility of the word. Proponents of the movement believed that history was cyclical; there was harmony through repetition of the stages. This circle of life helped them to classify the monolithic events of history. They believed in the "self," the essence of the human and that they shared a commonality with all humankind.

Romantics in art portrayed life in an epic and intense manner; subjects were depicted in an almost superhuman form. Scenes were heroic, as if the characters were triumphing over an evil. The movement was inspired by the French Revolution and the search for freedom. After surviving horrific events such as the Reign of Terror, mob rule and Napoleon's military dictatorship people were ready for beneficial changes and a more pleasant existence.

Music was another form of art that allowed people to escape their discontented reality. Music opened the door for interpretive thought; some composers completely omitted lyrics because they limited the listener's thoughts. Words created a boundary, restricting the interpreting person to the definition of the word. Poets and writers were also disgusted by language, because words could never quite fully express their intentions or emotions. Because of this, written works became extremely wordy, in hopes that so many words would allow the writer to be more explanatory.

John Stuart Mill's On Liberty was influenced by the Romantic Movement. His primary subjects of liberty and freedom are surely descendant from the impact of the French Revolution. Mill was also concerned with individual liberties; romanticism of the German generation felt the need to turn inward away from politics. This is somewhat contrary to Mill, because he was beginning to look more towards state intervention for the general welfare. However, the general welfare of the citizens is a prevalent idea of the period because of the perceived corrupted view of the modern world.

Mill was conversely influenced by the Romantics when one addresses his stance on the separation of spheres. The Romantics felt that women belonged at home, while men toiled away in the work force. They felt a certain hostility towards women; husbands and men in general blatantly practiced misogyny. Mill, on the other hand, was very profound in his book The Subjection of Women, when he pointed out that women should be treated as the equal of men. This was a direct strike against the mistreatment of women by the Romantics.

Karl Marx was not a romantic by any means, but he appreciated their opposition towards modern capitalist civilization. His works often incorporated the ideas of the romantic critics of bourgeois society (Löwy and Sayre). Marx felt that capitalism corrupted society and people; the proletariat was being manipulated and exploited by the bourgeoisie. The superstructure of government was inherently corrupt for Marx, because the powerful bourgeois citizens were also those who were politically involved or were in close ties with those who were. This is somewhat acquiescent with the German generation of romanticism; becoming removed from politics, turning inward because of the external corruption.

Fyodor Dostoevsky's romanticism is found in the attitudes and description of his characters. In the book The Gambler each persona is a complex web of intrigue; they either appear to be normal in the case of Alexei but in the end have an unnatural tendency or are depicted by Alexei to be sinister, calculating individuals who are in actuality the most normal characters. Paulina is a prime example, because though she is shown to have problems, it is the misguided Alexei who distorts them. In the end it is she who is worried about him, and his abnormal obsession with gambling.

The idealist attitudes and posturing of the characters in this period also stems from romantic ideas. These people are attempting to forget politics in their spa towns; they come to relax and to enjoy this leisure activity. The bourgeois members felt that it was necessary to show how uncaring they were about losing their money; that they had enough that losing a little would be of no concern to them. The posturing was to show just how important they really were; items such as clothing, number of servants, and the hotel and room they stayed in were status symbols. Romantics were very interested in making themselves look more important than they really were.

Liberty, equality, humanity, independence, and unity are the founding principles upon which Giuseppe Mazzini based Young Italy. Nationalistic pride was one of the various basic aims of romanticism, thus the formation of societies such as Young Italy were an immediate consequence of romanticism. Mazzini uses appeals to the emotional bond that Italians have with their country along with the ties that they have to each other through commonalities in heritage, culture, politics, and in their future aspirations for the country.

In his push for a unified Italy, Mazzini states that "theoretically every nation is destined, by the law of God and humanity, to form a free and equal community of brothers; and the republican is the only form of government that insures this future" (Mazzini, 128). This statement also invokes the belief in the good of humanity; another one of the primary ideas of romanticism.

William Morris follows in the footsteps of Marx; socialism is his goal for the commonwealth. He appeals to the good of humanity in the beginning of his writing by using explanatory and invented words, such as Whiggery. His accounts are extremely detailed, so as to elicit a feeling of empathy or comradery from the reader. His focus is of course politics, in a way the socialist goal is an international unity. They are working not for nationalistic unity but for unity across borders, transcending then eliminating class boundaries. This is how romanticism is apparent in Morris' works.

Émile Zola took a stand for what was right in humanity. His letter to the President of the Republic, published under the title "J'accuse!..." was a purely emotional appeal; attempting to touch on the very natural "brutish and animalistic" tendencies of human nature (Siegel, 237). His writing style is a top example of the romantic zeal for life, humanity and emotion. His choice of words is not only evoking of emotion, but is wordy in his use of so many descriptive terms. Being constrained by the defined meaning of a word was obviously a barrier to his ability to present his obvious dissent of the handling of the Dreyfus Affair.

The works of Sigmund Freud find their relation to romanticism in the separation of a person's drives into the ego, the superego and the unconscious. The balance of the three drives within each person is that which allows them to analyze their thoughts and actions; this is the scientific, antithesis, of romanticism. However, Freud was brilliant enough to combine the near contrary positions. Romanticism is apparent in his work when one looks at how he explains how a person's mind works psychologically. "The personality of the individual was not a coherent whole but fragmented, torn between primitive desires and social expectations, racked by neurosis and guilt" (Gildea, 395). This is typical romanticism, because of its basis on the multi-layered nature of human emotion.

Filippo Marinetti wrote of "courage, audacity and revolt" in his works (Marinetti Manifesto). These are some of the immediate ideas that come to mind when one envisions a romantic painting. Jacques-Louis David's painting "Napoleon at the Alps" comes to mind when these words are mentioned. In the Manifesto he also mentioned intentions of bringing literature to life; along with his colleagues they professed their intentions "to exalt aggressive action, a feverish insomnia, the racer's stride, the mortal leap, the punch and the slap." Their goal was parallel to the romantic writers, to convey the immense emotional journey that they had embarked upon.

There are several lessons to be learned in this paper; the first being that romanticism cannot be confined to just one aspect of reality; its notions extend to music, art, literature and politics. It is also the rejection of the reason and with that it encompasses the nature of human emotion. The emotional appeal is a volatile tool, and was used widely to petition the support of many in times of questionable circumstances. At times, this led to manipulation by the press or the bourgeoisie.

Following the end of the romantic era, many precepts lived on in one aspect or another in the works of our great writers. They drew from the emotions of the people, built upon their common bonds for nationalistic goals, and showed them the way in a corrupt and sinister world. These writers' styles were highly influenced by the tremendously pretentious Romantic Movement even after it had officially found its end in the mid-nineteenth century.

Dostoevsky, Fyodor. The Gambler. New York, N.Y.: Bantam Books, Inc., 1997.

Gildea, Robert. Short Oxford History of the Modern World: Barricades and Boarders, Europe 1800-1914. Third Ed. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2003.

Löwy, Michael and Robert Sayre. Romanticism against the Tide of Modernity. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001.

Marinetti, Filippo. Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism. Paris. 20 Feb 1909. 21 Nov 2003. .

Morris, William. "How I Became a Socialist." English Social Democracy. Reserved Reading.

Mazzini, Giuseppe. "Mazzini's Concept of Nationalism: General Instructions for the Members of Young Italy, 1831." Nationalism, Socialism and Reaction. Reserved Reading.

Siegel, Jerrold. Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830-1930. Baltimore, M.D.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.