Sources of Moral Knowledge in Classical Works

As seen in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics the source of moral knowledge is reason: the "divine element" which distinguishes man from beast. (X.7.8) Aristotle's virtuous Greek pagan consistently operates in line with this reason to seek the virtue of each possible state. In Deuteronomy, Moses asserts the Ten Commandments from God-a direct, external communication to his chosen people-as the source of knowledge of good and evil. His obedient Hebrew lives life according to the laws bestowed upon the chosen people of God in pursuit of life everlasting. In the Aeneid of Virgil, Virgil shows that what is good and evil is determined by unrelenting obedience to the gods. Virgil's pious Latin pagan, Aeneas, dutifully follows the will of the gods in fulfillment of his fate. Finally, In Paul's Letter to the Romans, the source of knowledge of good and evil comes from faith in God through Jesus Christ. The Jew or Gentile of faith has an inner belief in God through Christ which guides his or her entire life. Despite the obvious contrasts in viewpoints-which will be discussed further, close examination of these texts will reveal that there are, in fact, some fundamental consistencies.

For Aristotle, the source of knowledge of good and evil is reason. To him, reason is an innate entity: "...one needs a sort of natural, in born sense of sight, to judge finely and to choose what is really good." (III.5.7) Aristotle's view is unlike all of the other four authors'. It is through reason that we are able to recognize what is good and distinguish it from what is not. Although reason is inborn, we must develop our reason in order to be accurate judges of how to behave because, as Aristotle explains, "It is sometimes difficult, however, to judge what [goods] should be chosen at the price of what [evils], and what [evils] should be endured as the price of what [goods]." (III.1.9) Aristotle's is the only moral system out of the aforementioned four which sites an internal element of the individual as the source of moral knowledge.

In Deuteronomy, The Aeneid, and the Letter to the Romans, there is a clear, common characteristic which distinguishes the viewpoint expressed in this text from that of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics. This distinguishing element is the question of whether the source of moral knowledge is an innate understanding, or whether it is derived from some external, Supreme Being. Moses asserts that God is the source of moral knowledge in the form of divine commandment. He tells the Israelites: "Every command that I enjoin on you, you shall be careful to observe, neither adding to it nor subtracting from it." (13:1) In The Aeneid, Virgil's stance is that the source of moral knowledge is piety, which can only be fully realized through complete obedience in the gods in accordance with fate. To Paul, God is the source, and we are given this knowledge in the form of faith. These three authors operate under the assumption that the individual is incapable of knowing what is right without being told what is right. This is much unlike Aristotle's view which states that each individual is endowed with reason, and through contemplative cultivation as well as exercise of this reason the individual is capable of knowing what is right by his or her own volition.

The writings of Moses and Paul both identify the Supreme Being from whom moral knowledge originates as God. The God of Moses and Paul is the biblical monotheistic God of Isaac, Abraham, and Jacob. He exists infinitely and without question. He is transcendent, which means He is not subject to time or space. He does not reside within the world of man. Their God is flawless and omniscient. He only expresses jealousy in one instance: when individuals worship false idols (idolatry). This differs greatly from the popular gods of Roman/Greek mythology of which Virgil writes in The Aeneid. These gods often take on human characteristics, and reflect many mortal imperfections. The popular gods are subject to such flaws as vanity, pride, and greed. The gods also meddle in the affairs of men for their own amusement. Also unlike the monotheistic God, the gods reside on earth at a physical location known as Mount Olympus.

In the writings of Aristotle, Paul, and Moses, we can assume that men possess free will and are capable of acting in accordance with virtue or the will of God. We cannot, however, make this assumption in Virgil's Aeneid. Since Virgil takes the stance that mortals have fates which are assigned by the gods, one can conclude that no matter what the individual does, his or her fate will be realized. The reader is not presented with any instance in which Aeneas disobeys the gods, so he is unable to know with any certainty whether Aeneas could have disobeyed their will even if he had wanted to. In fact, in one instance a goddess (Aeneas' mother, Venus) physically prohibits him from doing as he wishes. In this example, Aeneas wishes to murder Helen of Troy, but Venus steps in:

"...my gracious mother stood there before me; and across the night she gleamed with pure light, unmistaken goddess, as lovely and tall as she appears whenever she is seen by heaven's beings. And while she caught and held my right hand fast, she spoke these words to me with her rose lips: 'Son be quick to flee, be done fighting. I shall never desert your side until I set you safe upon your father's threshold'."(I.790)

The moral system of Moses as illustrated in Deuteronomy contends that men must follow the commandment of God with no exceptions. Moses dictated God's specific rules to His chosen people-the Hebrews. Moses did not intend for this moral system to be followed by every man in the same way that it was intended for the Hebrews to follow it. In upholding the commandments of God, the Hebrews would be strengthening their relationship with God, and fulfilling their role in their covenant with Him. By doing so, the Hebrews would be the perfect example for all other religious and secular persuasions.

The moral system addressed by Paul contends that through faith in God through the saving action of Jesus Christ an individual receives internal knowledge of what is right and wrong. One cannot attain faith on his or her own; it must be gifted by God. This results in a complete transformation of the soul. Paul, unlike Moses, did not believe that a life of faith was only meant for individuals of Hebrew descent, but rather all men have an equal opportunity to receive faith in God.

Virgil's moral system based on moral knowledge though obedience in the gods in the fulfillment of fate was meant for the Romans specifically. The gods had developed specific fates for these individuals. The gods made their wills known to the Romans and so they were really the only ones who had the opportunity to follow such will.

In the modern world, it is unreasonable to think that any moral system which refers to an external Supreme Being directly could be effectively applied universally. Although the commandments of God are useful for Christians, there are far too many uncompromising religions in the world today that simply would never comply. It would be remarkable if a moral system based on religion were feasible, because the end result would be unity. Unfortunately, however, it is not possible.

If any of the moral systems can be applied to all men it is that of Aristotle. His moral system based on reason is the only moral system which places the responsibility of an individual's actions on the individual-whether the result is virtuous or vicious. He writes that all men are born with reason, and so all men have the equal opportunity to become virtuous. By holding individuals accountable for their actions and placing the responsibility of cultivating their reason on them, there is much more room for individual growth and introspection. If this moral system were applied to the modern world, the improvement in the general moral state of mankind would be remarkable.

Aristotle, "Nicomachean Ethics ." MIT Classics. 2000. Trans. W. D. Ross. 29 Feb 2008 .

"Deuteronomy Full Text." .

"The Aeneid by Virgil." 03 01 1995. Project Gutenberg. 02 FEB 2008 .

"Romans." Early Christian Writings. Project Gutenberg. 27 Feb 2008 .