Teaching Through Transformation: Learner-Centered Instructional Design for Adult Learners

Over the past century, college and university demographics have changed. Recently there has been an influx of non-traditional learners enrolling in colleges and universities. With this change in the learner base, there comes a need to look at the methods of design for instruction within adult filled classrooms. A focus upon the theory of transformative learning and learner-centered learning thus has begun. Can instructional designers utilize this theory in order to ensure a better learning environment for the adults that are filling college campuses? Is transformative learning supportive of the shift in higher education to learner-centered learning and teaching? A review of current literature gives a broader view on these questions.

Review of the Literature:

In the past, the typical college student was fresh out of high school or under the age of 25 -years. Loden and Rosener (1991, as cited in Thoms, 2001) predicted that by the year 2000 we would see more women, minorities, single parents, and working learners enter educational institutions across America. Not only is this prediction proving to be true, there are also more adults than ever (those over the age of 25) seeking post-secondary degrees. This adjustment in the learner base presented a need for change in methods of design for instruction within adult filled classrooms.

As higher education demographics changed, so did the idea of instructor-led education. A focus has been placed on making higher education more learner-centered, giving the adult learner an active voice in their education, instead of a passive one. Could Meizrow's theory of transformative learning be supportive of the learner-centered paradigm shift that higher education is going through? Using transformative learning theory and the concept of learner-centered education, can the instructional designer use this blend to provide the best environment for the adult learner?

In 1978, Jack Meizrow proposed a learning theory that focused upon the transformation that takes place when adults are placed within new learning environments. Meizrow's model "emphasizes reflection on previously held assumptions about the world to arrive at a new world view" (Baumgartner, 2003, p. 23). When adult learners are able to reflect upon what they all ready know and critically reflect, a transformation occurs where the new ideas are processed and melded with the known ideas, forming new perspectives. As designers focus upon this process, an instructional method would be to use discussion as a way of learning. Utilizing open discussion and encouraging honest views on the topic allows the adult learner to see alternate views that may be present, creating a "comfort zone" where they feel comfortable expressing their own views. When this is supported, transformation can begin.

When the adult learner begins the process of transformation, Meizrow believed there was a 10-step process, which they must go through in order for a total transformation of knowledge to occur. Following Cranton's (2006, p. 20) outline of these ten steps is an explanation on how this can be related to adult learning and the instructional design procedure behind it:

Experiencing a disorienting dilemma. When entering the classroom for the first time, adult learners feel out of place, begin to wonder why they are here. There may have been a "crisis" that led to pursuit of their education such as job loss, death of a spouse, health issues, or "empty-nest" syndrome (McWhinney & Markos, 2003). In order to flow instruction into self-examination, the instructor should be focus on making the learner secure and at ease. Starting with an open discussion on why they are pursuing their educations and reflecting on their dilemma could ease this transition into education.

Undergoing self-examination. During self-examination, the adult learner may feel uncomfortable about how they see their own views compared to others. Designers must consider this and give ample access to the ethical implications that this self-examination might bring about. Supporting individuality and watching for changes in the learner's views should be accommodated. The instructor can utilize self-actualization tools during this time, relate how they themselves felt during this step, and encourage the learners to open up and reflect on their feelings (Cranton, 2002; McWhinney & Markos, 2003; Tennant, 2005; Merriam, 2004).

Conducting a critical assessment of internalized assumptions and feeling a sense of alienation from traditional social expectations. This step is particularly sensitive and should be addressed with tact and understanding. Once the adult learner has examined their own assumptions, they may find that it does not agree with what they were raised to believe or what society expects of them. Transformative instruction should focus upon the learners' freedom to be who they are with no preconceived notions (Cranton, 2006; McWhinney & Markos, 2003). Focusing upon the feelings and how to deal with them in a cognitive aspect instead of upon the grade value within the courseroom will give credence to each learners own assumptions without pinning them against one another in their goal to "get an A".

Relating discontent to the similar experiences of others-recognizing that the problem is shared. Within the design of instruction, this area needs to be again open to discussion. Giving the adult learners an outlet for how each of them is feeling and encouraging their honesty in expressing these things is of utmost importance. Jarvis (1992, as cited in Cranton, 2006) addresses this as being authentic; "foster[s] the growth and development of each other's being" (p. 161). Giving access to relay the authenticity of one, the instructional designer must create an arena that promotes this discourse and gives way for all learners to support their own feelings along with their learning peers. Again, open and honest discussion, which focuses upon the learners and the interaction with the content instead of the content being the focus. Lisa Baumgartner states, "People must talk with each other in order to determine the truth of their perspectives" (2003, p. 25).

Exploring options for new ways of acting. Once the first four steps have been worked through, instructional designers can then present the new knowledge in ways that the adult learner can act upon. Giving access to course projects that reflect on the new perspectives, allowing for general discussion on how to implement the knowledge into the learners lives, and promoting creative problem-solving scenarios are a few ways to support the transformation of views and values (Baumgartner, 2003;Cranton, 2006; Merriam, 2004).

Building competence and self-confidence in the new roles. Once there are applications of the new knowledge and the transformation has taken place, learners need to feel that they have made the right choices. Instructional designers should focus on this step and create a solid foundation for instructors to be able to give effective and timely feedback, open and honest critical reflection on the knowledge, and to offer peer interaction for differing views on feedback. Incorporating experiential learning components will also build self-confidence as the learners focus on their new knowledge and transformation and apply it to real-life situations (Baumgartner, 2003; Cranton, 2002).

Planning a course of action. Preparing the adult learner to find a way to incorporate their transformed knowledge base, the instructional designer could utilize journal assignments, reflection sessions, and units on achieving goals. Cranton suggests the following for "incorporating more imaginative and relational aspects" (2006, p. 172): (a) set goals or create a new vision, (b) think toward the future, near and far, (c) keep in mind what may hinder or get in the way along the way, (d) plan for changes, create alternative plans, wonder "What If", (e) do something concrete, if need be, and (f) ask for opinions of others (Cranton, 2006).

Acquiring the knowledge and skills for implementing a new course of action. If more is needed, the instructional designer must allow further knowledge to be transformed. Continuing educational courses, building upon each one to encompass the whole is one way to utilize this. Giving the learners options on "where to go from here" is another component. Recognizing that the transformation may create more questions and the need for the learner to keep going in their journey gives credence and support to the transformation process (Cranton, 2002 & 2006; Meizrow, 2000; Merriam, 2003). Designers can include alternative options to the learners at this point. This would allow for those learners that want to acquire more knowledge and skills to do so and those that are ready for the next step to proceed. Open learning environments that encourage the use of the transformed knowledge are best for the process to be complete.

Trying out new roles and assessing them. The crucial of all the steps, the adult learner must feel secure about their newly transformed perspectives and be able to try them out before they venture forth into society with the knowledge. Instructional designers can present real-life situations for the learner, giving them a way to incorporate the knowledge into everyday situations. Instructors should be encouraged at this point to give voice to their own experiences, using the real world to give credence to what the learner feels they have learned (Baumgartner, 2003; Cranton, 2002; Tennant, 2005) and give the learner a way to assess their own role against someone with experience.

Reintegrating into society with the new perspective. The final step is one that completes the cycle of transformative learning. As the adult learner finishes their transformation through the knowledge that has been presented, the designer can utilize community services in order to support the learner. Providing for validation (Cranton, 2002), giving support through follow-ups, and encouraging reflection (Baumgartner, 2003) are all ways for the instructor to assist the learner back into society.

Researchers have begun to add more "bricks" to Meizrow's theory of transformative learning foundation. Combining the theories of learning along with learning styles could promote a better understanding and more support for transformative learning. As the years progress, so will the theory, just as when Meizrow was bringing his research forth, higher education began shifting from instructor-led instruction to learner-centered learning. (Greive, 2002).

In 2002, Donald Greive published his fourth edition of "A Handbook for Adjunct/Part-Time Faculty and Teachers of Adults". Greive's revision of the handbook stems from changes in higher education over the past decade, particularly "the mission of higher education has shifted to a greater emphasis on learner-centered learning..." (p. 7). In traditional educational classrooms, the course of instruction is based upon the instructor's experience and their knowledge base. The learners are led through the acquirement of knowledge by the "subject-matter expert", having little if no interaction with the application of the knowledge to their own lives (Assarsson & Sipos-Zackrisson, 2001; Kerka, 2002). With learner-centered education, the instruction focuses on the learner and the experiences that exist within their own life. The main idea of learner-centered education is that knowledge is most important when the subject matter is connected to the learners' lives, needs, and interests. When the learners themselves are enthusiastically connected to the knowledge, they are more likely to comprehend it (Muzenski, McGuire, Drury, Storch, & Baenen, nd).

When education is switched from instructor-centered to learner-centered, "learners are at the center of policy and practice...which [provides] flexibility and individuation for self-directed, empowered adults" (Mancuso as cited in Kerka, 2002, p. 21). This can lead toward a sense of responsibility and self-direction for the learner. Learners who are self-directed are persistent, goal-oriented, and look forward to their experiences in learning (Baumgartner, 2003). When education is focused upon the learner, it provides a unique experience where the learner and the instructor can learn from one another. Instructional design implications for learner-centered educational classrooms give more credence to the flexibility and self-autonomy, therefore, a design that promotes "independence, free will, and personal choice" (Baumgartner, 2003, p. 30) will be successful. Learner-centered education also leads toward transformation of the learners current perspectives, which leads to the link between the two theories being reviewed.

The theory of transformative learning is directly related to learner-centered approaches of education in that it focuses upon three kinds of knowledge: emancipatory, communicative, and instrumental (Haberma, 1971 as cited by Cranton in Ross-Gordon, 2002). Transformative learning is emancipatory in that it is self-realized, and more often than not, a voluntary process from the learner's perspective. It is communicative in it involves the process of the learner understanding the knowledge, themselves, and their surroundings, and it is instrumental in that it has direct "cause-and-effect" (Cranton, in Ross-Gordon, 2002, p.64)) on the learner's life Transformative learning relates to the adult learner as it is based on prior experiences in their lives, reaffirmation of beliefs or changes in them, and the "authentic self" (Tennant, 2005, p. 104).

Adults bring past fears, expectations, experiences, social and cultural aspects, and many other components into the classroom. In order for the experience to be transformative, the designer has to form the instruction in such a way that these components are fully recognized and supported. Designers should focus on bringing out the authentic self of the learner by creating instruction that stimulates honest evaluation of oneself, critical reflection on current knowledge, and a way for new knowledge to be processed within the context of the learners own beliefs. McWhinney and Markos eloquently state, "Every design [for transformative learning] implies a theory of human and social development ...whether by implication or by following an explicit ideology" (2003, as cited in Tennant, 2005, p. 108). Human and social development is very important to learner-centered learning in that without attention paid to these theories, the learner would not be the center of the education.

Within transformative learning theory, the humanistic aspects and the social implications are foundations for the transformation to take place. These implications also put the learner at the center of the learning process, again pertinent to higher education's goal. Further research could be conducted utilizing the humanistic and social development theories to support learner-centered education, perhaps utilizing case studies where the theory of transformative learning is being used in an adult learner-centered classroom.

Using transformative learning theory to support learner-centered teaching and learning, the instructional designer can fully integrate the processes in order to give the adult learner a well-rounded, socially acceptable, and personally fulfilling educational experience. Although more research is needed in how learner-centered learning is faring, overall there is a great number of supporters for both theories. As more adults pursue higher educational goals, the research will become clearer on what is working to the best advantage of the ones that count, the learner themselves. Just as the learner transforms, so will the research behind the theory. Meizrow himself said it best:
There is need for adult educators who are interested in the concept of transformative learning...to elaborate on the crucially important roles and relationships of affective, intuitive, and imaginative dimensions of the process. We are all collaborating to build a theory in the process of development. (2004, p. 70)

References:

Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning. (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cranton, P. (2002, Spring). Teaching for transformation. Contemporary viewpoints on teaching adults effectively, 93, 63-71. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Greives, D. (2002). A handbook for adjunct/part-time faculty and teachers of adults. (4th ed.). Info-Tec.
Kerka, S. (2002). Teaching adults: Is it different? Myths and realities. ERIC Clearinghouse Publications. Retrieved August 3, 2006 from ERIC database.

McWhinney, W. & Markos, L. (2003). Transformative education: Across the threshold. Journal of Transformative Education. 1(1), 16-37. Retrieved August 13, 2006 from Sage Education Full-Text Collection database.

Muzenski, H.; McGuire, S.; Drury, J.; Storch, S.; & Baenen, J. (nd). Creating an effective foreign language classroom: Student centered learning. Retrieved August 31, 2006 from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/step/ep301/Fall2000/Tochonites/stu_cen.html.

Merriam, S. (2004). The role of cognitive development in Meizrow's transformational learning theory. Adult Education Quarterly. 55(1), 60-68. Retrieved February 13, 2005 from Academic Premier database.

Semmar, Y. (2006). Adult learners and academic achievement: The roles of self-efficacy, self-regulation, and motivation. ERIC Clearinghouse Publications. Retrieved August 19, 2006 from ERIC database.

Tennant, M. (2005, April). Transforming selves. Journal of Transformative Education. 3(2), 102-115. Retrieved July 22, 2006 from Sage Education Full-Text Collection database.

Ziniewicz, G. (nd). Rousseau's (educational) principles and purposes. Retrieved August 18, 2006 from http://www.fred.net/tzaka/rousseau.html.