The Art of Political Persuasion

The presidential election of 2004 is being rumored to be one of the most important elections of a lifetime. On the verge of war with the Middle East, the economy failing, and highly debated social issues surfacing, the next president of the United States inherits a great deal of responsibility. He must be firm, confident, and representative of Americans' ideals. But how do we come to find these traits in our political leaders? Usually, we attribute character traits to candidates by what they tell us to believe. This is the art of political persuasion.

This paper will examine the art of political persuasion through political campaigns. It will focus on both historical and current examples of persuasion in these campaigns. Areas to be explored through historical examples include image, advertisement, debates, and the issues. At the end of each section the persuasion technique will be analyzed according to the principles of social psychology. Then, the same areas will be explored through current examples in the 2004 primaries and the upcoming 2004 presidential election.

Image has played a major role in elections of the past. Three elements that make up image include physical appearance, character traits, and association. "Look the part...voters still seems to prefer physically attractive, healthy, and athletic-looking white males" (Simons 252). This quotation is taken from a "how-to" manual on political campaign strategy. The manual goes on to instruct a candidate to "Dress the part," and "Work on your photographic poses" (Simons 252-253). One study cites that not only were less attractive candidates evaluated lower than more desirable candidates, but people were less likely to vote for the less aesthetically appealing candidate (Biocca 314).

This is probably why campaign strategists portray the opponent in such a distasteful light in their advertisements. Campaign consultant Frank Luntz explains, "Your opponent's face should have some combination of the following elements: a five-o'clock shadow, half-closed eye or eyes, and an open mouth" (Simons 243). For example, banners carried by Lincoln supporters in the 1860 and 1864 elections portrayed Lincoln as significantly more handsome than his opponent Brady (Jamieson 46). According to Cialdini's principle of liking, we as social beings tend to attribute positive feelings and characteristics to attractive people (Cialdini 148).

The second factor contributing to a candidate's image is attributed character traits. "Americans like for their candidates to be similar to themselves; yet, they also want their candidates to excel in some particular area of character that they themselves do not," states authors Karen S. Johnson-Cartee and Gary A. Copeland (Johnson-Cartee et al. 7). Simply put, according to social psychology, we like people who are like us (Cialdini 150). Some character traits that the public look for in candidates are decisiveness, capability, astuteness, reliability, attentiveness, and organization (Simons 249).

The voters also look to see that the candidate has displayed these traits through a list of accomplishments (Trent et al. 75). Studies have found that another important factor in winning an election has been optimism (Zimbardo et al. 161). In fact it was found that nine times out of ten the more optimistic candidate took won the election (Zimbardo et al. 161). For example, in 1988 George Bush Sr. stated publicly, "I am an optimist," and went on to capture the presidency because the voting public found his sunny outlook on the future appealing (Zimbardo et al. 161).

The third factor contributing to a candidate's image is his or her associations. Among these associations is that of being supported by other well known political leaders. Authors Judith S. Trent and Robert V. Friedenberg expalin, "The idea is that endorsement by respected leaders signifies that the candidate is already part of their group and should therefore also be though of as a leader...credibility by association" (Trent et al. 75). In 1992 candidate for the presidency Bill Clinton met with Boris Yeltsin in an attempt to emphasize his competence in international affairs (Trent et al. 73).

Another type of association comes from being pictured with groups that a candidate targets (Simons 257). For example, if the candidate wants to target the young they should be photographed with pop stars. If the candidate wants to win the vote of the elderly, they should be photographed with veterans.

A third type of association is that of political similarity. There are two types of political similarity, party affiliation and cultural background. For example, studies have found that many people of Jewish decent vote for Democrats consistently because they believe that these candidates boast similar ideals on government (Biocca 19). In fact, the mere appearance of a similarity sways votes (Zimbardo et al. 157). One study found that the voting public is more likely to favor candidates of similar ethnicity (Biocca 19). Again, similarity, through ethnicity and generation, and authority, through connection with other political leaders, play a major role in shaping peoples view of a candidate in regards to their associations.

"...issue positions are secondary in influence to candidate image," states author Boiney and Paletz (Biocca 10). So after voters have assessed the overall "attractiveness" of a candidate, they then search to examine whether the candidates view reflect their own. However, finding out what those views are is not easy. Candidates will often voice their views in such a way that they do not take a definitive standpoint (Johnson-Cartee et al. 15). For instance, a candidate may be "for family values" or "against the drug trade". The main thing to recognize is that these are not controversial issues; virtually every voter shares these views (Simons 253). It is here that the principle of similarity appears again. The "how-to" manual mentioned previously proclaims that a candidate should only take a definitive stand on a controversial issue if the majority of voters hold that view (Simons 253).

In addition, the "how-to" manual emphasizes, "Reflect voters' opinions back directly...celebrate what they already believe...appear as a superrepresentative of the people you are seeking to influence" (Simons 251). "It may be that the candidate who 'will' win is not the candidate who has found solutions," indicates author Kathleen Hall Jamieson (Jamieson 192). Many candidates have been said to be using the social psychology persuasion tactic of diversion, redirecting attention away from the "real" issues, to win over the voters (Simons 100). For instance, in a debate between Al Gore and Ross Perot during the 1996 presidential race, Vice President Gore attacked Perot's anti-NAFTA stance while Perot accused Gore of being a liar (Simons 100). In this case, both men are guilty of using the tactic of diversion.

Another important way in which candidates influence us is through debates. The outcome of just one debate can change the course of an election by boosting the public support for the candidate who is seen by the public to have "won" the debate (Holbrook 109). It is no wonder then that candidates put so much effort into these debates. Before the debate, candidates will try to lower the expectations of their performance in the upcoming debate (Trent et al. 221). This is done because if they do poorly, the candidate will not look bad; but if they do well, they will look even better. In the same respect, a candidate will try to increase expectations of their opponent (Trent et al. 222).

In addition, before the debate candidates memorize a closing remark (Simons 259), choose a target audience, rehearse answers to commonly asked questions, and develop a main focus for their debate time (Trent et al. 223-225). During the debate candidates attempt to discredit their opponents by stressing their own good qualities and emphasizing their opponent's shortcomings and wrongdoings (Simons 95-96). The "how-to" manual concurs; "Hold to your strengths; cover up your weaknesses" (Simons 258). One example of the strategy being utilized was Bill Bradley's accusation of Al Gore being too "timid" because of his extended stay in Washington (Simons 96). Debates play on the public's need to be on the winning side, the social psychology principle of "jumping on the bandwagon" (Simons 253).

The fourth, and most influential, element of political campaign persuasion is advertisement. Advertisements can include mailings, posters, flyers, and literature. However, campaigns typically spend 70% of their budget on television (Simons 218). There are two types of advertisements; positive and negative. Positive advertisement campaigns make up about 30-40% of all political campaign advertisements (Johnson-Cartee et al. 1). That means that 60-70% of advertisement campaigns in today's political arena are negative, implying that "going negative" has a much greater effect than "thinking positive" (Johnson-Cartee et al. 2). Coupled with the fact that most voters retain more information from campaign advertisements than news coverage, this becomes a serious issue worthy of much investigation (Simons 256).

Positive ads are defined as "designed to position the candidate on the issues and to increase the perceived ideal personal leadership qualities of the candidate" (Johnson-Cartee et al. 1). Positive ads focus on one of three ideas: name acknowledgment, glorification, or identification with positive values (Johnson-Cartee et al. 2-15). These advertisements appeal to our emotions by using sounds, colors, pictures, editing, and camera angles and force us to identify with the candidate by telling us stories about the candidate's past (Biocca 22). One advertisement for the 1986 South Dakota Senate race declared that incumbent Jim Abdnor's first dream was to play major league baseball, but when he realized he could never make the major's he turned to his second dream, serving his country (Johnson-Cartee et al. 8).

These types of ads are usually very effective because voters associate them with good feelings (Johnson-Cartee et al. 2). In this way, positive ads play on psychology's principle of classical conditioning. The ad evokes good feelings, and the ad is for a certain candidate. People accidentally attribute the feelings they have for the images and sounds in the advertisement to the candidate in the ad (Cialdini 167-168).

Candidates are advised by the "how-to" manual to "...stay on the high road as long as you're not losing ground...go negative if you're behind" (Simons 257). The American public has been widely known to see negative advertisements as shallow and distasteful, characterized by the word "mudslinging" (Johnson-Cartee et al. 19). However, it turns out that negative advertisements actually have a great affect on our candidate preference. One of the most notorious examples of a negative ad which swayed an election aired during the 1988 presidential election (Jamieson 17).

The advertisement sponsored by George Bush Sr., accused Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis of being lax on crime during his term as governor of Massachusetts by connecting him to a convicted murderer who committed a rape and assault while on a weekend-pass out of the jail; a program which Dukakis had institutionalized during his term (Jamieson 17). Unfortunately, this one negative association cost Dukakis the presidency and proved that "going negative" does have a crippling effect on a candidate's image. The "how-to" manual states, "...you're your opponent's softest points...take your best shots" (Simons 253). Negative ads manipulate our sense of what is true and untrue; what is for show and what is factual. They use our peripheral routes of information processing, such as what a respected candidate "says" is true, to get us to trust one candidate on the basis of what they say to be fact (Myers 244).

Not only can the use of political persuasion be seen in the past. It can also be seen through the current candidate's image, stance on issues, debates, and advertisements. Two recent races in which we can clearly see the use of political persuasion are the 2004 Democratic primaries and the 2004 presidential race which is surprisingly already off to a "mudslinging" start.

The 2004 Democratic primaries race was only a precursor to the 2004 presidential race but it held all the makings of a full fledged election in regards to image, stance on issues, and advertisements. For one of the lesser known candidates, Wesley Clarke, position on certain issues, namely on the conflict in Kosovo, turned out to be a key advantage despite media criticism. Clarke, a retired U.S. General, came under fire for his over zealous desire to present a military intervention into Kosovo (Smith). His association with the conflict was criticized but Clarke met these criticisms with advertisements that proclaimed, "He led a multinational force that stopped a campaign of terror, liberated a people and brought peace without the loss of a single American soldier" (Smith). Therefore, while Clarke's opinion on the conflict may have been a detriment to his campaign, his cunning use of advertisements portraying him as a protector of freedom boosted his image.

Another example from the 2004 primaries is that of Howard Dean's public image. Throughout the campaign, Dean was portrayed as an angry, violent man. All of these speculations about Dean's character traits culminated when he proceeded to let out an animal-like yelp during a rally at the close of the Iowa caucus, which he did not win (Crowley et al.). In this case, loosing control of his image is what lost Dean the Democratic candidacy.

Eventually, as the other candidates dropped out of the race, John Kerry rose to the top as the unofficial Democratic Party's candidate for the presidency. Since then, the media focus has turned towards ad wars between President Bush and Kerry. One specific advertisement currently running on TV stations across the country attacks Kerry as being "Wrong on taxes, wrong on defense" (Keen). In reply, Kerry launched a negative ad campaign saying Bush was "a divider and not a uniter" (CNN). In these ads, both candidates utilized negative advertisements to slander their opponent, defiling the other's image.

Another advertisement which the Bush campaign used to gain the vote of the American public was one which portrayed images of the September 11^th tragedy. Many citizens, especially those involved in the incident such as firefighters and police officers, were outraged by the ads (Washington et al.). These people were probably irritated because they realized that the President was attempting to enhance his image by associating himself with the event, therefore evoking an emotional response which would bind voters to him.

The use of persuasion in political campaigns can be deceiving. In the upcoming election, it will be important for voters to understand the tactics which candidates use to capture votes. The American public must not rely on things such as image, issues, debates, and advertisements to make hard decisions. Instead, voters must be educated on the real areas of importance; domestic and foreign policy issues, the economy, and social matters. Voters must separate the truth from what candidates want us to believe.
Works Cited

Biocca, Frank, ed. Television and Political Advertising Volume 1:

Psychological Processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, 1991.

Cialdini, Robert B. Influence. 4 ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2001.

"Ad Wars." CNN.com 3 March 2004. 1 April 2004.

Crowley, Candy, and Mercurio, John. "Wisconsin marks end of line for

Dean." CNN.com 18 Feburary 2004. 1 April 2004.

Holbrook, Thomas M. Do Campaigns Matter? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications, 1996.

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Dirty Politics. New York, NY: Oxford University

Press, 1992.

Johnson-Cartee, Karen S., and Gary A. Copeland. Manipulation of the

American Voter. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1997.

Keen, Judy. "Bush unveils first negative ads, calls Kerry wrong on

taxes, defense." USA Today 11 March 2004. 1 April 2004.

004-03-11-bush-ads_x.htm>

Myers, David G. Social Psychology. 7 ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill,

2002.

Simons, Herbert W. Persuasion in Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications, 2001.

Smith, Jeffrey. "Clark's Role in Kosovo Exemplifies His Traits."

Washington Post 17 December 2003. 1 April 2004.

dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A6340-

2003Dec16¬Found=true>

Trent, Judith S., and Robert V. Friedenberg. Political Campaign

Communication. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1995.

Washington, Wayne, and Kornblut, Anne E.. "9/11 images in Bush ads hit:

Firefighters, kin of victims complain." The Boston Globe 5 March

2004. 1 April 2004.

Zimbardo, Phillip G., and Michael R. Leippe. The Psychology of Attitude

Chand and Social Influence. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1991.