The Use of Ethical Inquiry as a Theoretical Basis for Qualitative Research

When most people think of qualitative research, the study designs of phenomenological, ethnographic, case study, or historical research comes to mind. However, equally as important is the study of philosophical aspects of qualitative research. Included within the philosophical classification is the study of ethics and how ethical theory can be applied to research studies. Ethics are concerned with right and wrong, good and bad, and moral versus amoral. The qualitative methodology is one of the best ways to analyze such an area because there is rarely a black and white answer to ethical problems or dilemmas. Qualitative research can be used to conduct interviews with individuals to determine their ethical beliefs. The study of ethics is very interesting because ethical beliefs are very subjective and individualized, yet most ethical views are shaped by the views of the societal majority.

There are several theories upon which the ethical inquiry qualitative methodology can be based. These theories include virtue theory, deontology, and utilitarianism, and they provide a basis on which an ethical inquiry study can be built. Because the theories vary greatly in the basic beliefs about ethics, studies are usually based on only one of these theories.

The development of ethical theory began when Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B. C.) developed Virtue Theory (Darwall, 1996). Aristotle's theory was concerned with what makes an individual a good person (Kemerling, 2001). He believed that leading a virtuous life was more important than any material object a person can acquire or the fulfillment of desires (Kemerling, 2001). Unlike other ethical theories, virtue theory did not focus on consequences or rules (Garrett, 2002). The focus of the theory was on conducting oneself morally and ethically (Garrett, 2002). According to his theory, ethical conduct and the leading of a virtuous life are the result of habits we acquire by performing an action and being corrected for the action if it is not ethical or virtuous (Kemerling, 2001). Aristotle did not believe that ethics are something a person is born knowing, but are developed throughout life by actions that contribute to the creation of virtuous habits.

His theory was one that believed greatly in the idea of moderation. Aristotle believed that an excess or depravity of any action is incorrect and that the ethical and virtuous action lies somewhere in between the two extremes (Kemerling, 2001). He believed that "acting rightly involves coordinating our desires with correct thoughts about the correct goal or ends" (Kemerling, 2001).

Aristotle believed that for an action to be considered moral, it must be undertaken voluntarily (Kemerling, 2001). He also outlined certain situations in which an individual cannot be held responsible for an immoral action. The first exception is situations where actions are the result of an external force or are performed under extreme duress (Kemerling, 2001). The second exception is when the performance of an action would not normally result in harm but does (Kemerling, 2001). Aristotle believed that moral actions are ones that are "within our power to perform or avoid, hence we can reasonably be held responsible for them and their consequences" (Kemerling, 2001). He also believed that knowing an action is right does not always result in doing what is right (Kemerling, 2001).

Another ethical theory is deontology, whose name comes form the Greek words deon and logos, which mean duty and obligation respectively (Freeman, 2002). The theory of deontology involves morality, duty, and obligation (Kay, 1997). The most widely known deontology theorist is Immanuel Kant (1724 to 1804) (Kay, 1997). He believed that morality is not based on the consequences of an action, but is based on the nature of the action and the will of those that perform that action (Kay, 1997). Kant stated the future is not within human control, and individuals can only be praised or blamed for those actions that are within human control (Kay, 1997). Two common saying that come from this theory include "the ends never justifies the means" and "do unto others as you would have them do unto you" (Kay, 1997). Under deontology, moral rules should have universalizability (Kay, 1997). This means that moral actions are only ones that an individual can wish that everyone should follow the same actions. Deontology theorists also believe that actions that are engaged in based on moral reasoning are always correct over those that are not (Freeman, 2002).

There are two categorical imperatives that are important to Kant's theory. The first involves the universalizability principle and states that an individual should "always act in such a way that you can also will that the maxim of your action should become universal law" (Kay, 1997). The second stresses the need for respect of the individual and states that an individual should "act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in that of another, always as an end and never merely as a means" (Kay, 1997).

Utilitarianism theory evaluates actions based on how they affect the happiness of an individual (Kay, 1997). Acts that increase happiness are approved of and acts that decrease happiness are disapproved of. This theory can be classified as either act utilitarianism or rule utilitarianism, but cannot be both (Kay, 1997). Act utilitarianism believes that an "act is right if and only if it results in as much good as any available alternative" (Kay, 1997). Rule utilitarianism believes "an act is right if and only if it is required by a rule that is itself a member of a set of rules, the acceptance of which would lead to greater good for society than any available alternative" (Kay, 1997).

The utilitarianism theory also has a harm principle, which states that if an individual is at risk of harming others, it is justifiable to coerce the behavior of the individual (Kay, 1997). In addition, there is a principle of consequences under this theory. It states that the only thing that must be considered with regard to consequences of action is how much happiness or unhappiness is caused (Kay, 1997). Right actions are ones that produce the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people (Kay, 1997). The greatest number of people refers to those that are affected by the action.

One well-known Utilitarianism theorist is Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) who believed that considering the consequences of an action was essential in determining its morality (Kemerling, 2002). In keeping with utilitarian theory, he believed in the moral obligation of ensuring the maximum amount of happiness for as many people as possible (Sweet, 2001). Bentham stated that actions that contribute to the greater good are those that result in happiness and pleasure (Kemerling, 2002).

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) built upon Bentham's utilitarianism theory (Kemerling, 2002). Mill believed in the basic principles of Bentham's theory, including the importance of considering consequences when determining the morality of an action (Kemerling, 2002). However, he added secondary moral principles, which provide guidelines to leading a moral life on an everyday basis (Kemerling, 2002). He believed that the performance of immoral behaviors is influenced by both external and internal consequences to actions (Kemerling, 2002). External consequences would include incarceration for bad behavior and internal consequences would include guilt and conscience. The basic principle of utilitarianism as defined by Mill is that "actions are right to the degree that they tend to promote the greatest good for the greatest number" (Kay, 1997). Mill believed that applying the utility principle in the social setting involved the promotion of justice including respect for the property and rights of individuals (Kay, 1997). Mill has stated, "the creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness" (Mill, 1863).

The philosophical qualitative methodology of ethical inquiry could be used to examine many areas within health science, although it has not been used very often in the past. There are many ethical dilemmas and ethical questions that health care providers deal with on a daily basis that would benefit from qualitative analysis. The benefit to performing qualitative research in the area of ethical inquiry is that it can provide health care providers with information about the perception and beliefs regarding ethics in their patients and could provide them with a way to better interpret the situations they face. However, there are some issues that arise when considering an exploration of ethical areas in regard to health care. The primary issue, I believe, is that the research should only set out to explore the ethics associated with an issue, but not to make judgments about whose ethical choices are correct. There are so many factors other than ethics that can influence how an individual acts in a given situation.

Works Cited
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