The Evolution of King Arthur

"If King Arthur did not live, he should have." This quote by Winston Churchill describes perfectly the puzzle of Arthur. Many scholars believe he did exist; others avidly say he didn't. Hundreds of books have been written on the subject, citing evidence for both arguments. Whether he's a myth or a reality, Arthur has changed the face of literature forever.

There are three separate influences for the legend of Arthur: history, mythology, and literature. Over time, each has played a role in shaping the Arthur we know today.

Historically, it is believed that Arthur lived between 500 and 550 A.D. This period, known as the Dark Ages, relied heavily on the oral tradition. Not much was written about Arthur until the ninth century, when a Welsh monk made mention of him in his Historia Brittonum.

According to the monk Nennius, the Roman Empire pulled their troops out of Britain, leaving it free for invaders. Arthur, possibly Roman on his father's side and Briton on his mother's side, led twelve great battles against Saxon invaders. Nowhere in the Historia Brittonum was Arthur called a king. Instead, he was called "dux bellorum," or a Duke of War that rode into battle with the great kings.

By the time of the High Middle Ages, the oral tradition of the Dark Ages had already changed the story of Arthur. Much of what had been known about him had been lost or replaced by Norse, Celtic, or German mythology. One such example was the tale of "The Sword and the Stone." According to Thomas Malory, the Magician Merlin placed a sword in the stone. In the Norse Volsunga Saga, Odin, the god of wizards, places the sword in the trunk of a great tree.

There are also parallels between Arthur, and the Celtic myths of Finn. Tales of Arthur's beloved wife Guinevere and nephew Mordred are also very similar to stories of Finn's wife Grainne and nephew Diarmait. Other parallels between Arthur and Finn lie in the stories of Avolon and of the return from a magical sleep. Both also offer promise of a future return.

Several of the Arthurian knights were also taken from mythology. Sir Kay, Arthur's surly butler, was taken from the Celtic fire god Kai. Sir Bedevere was modeled after Bedwyr, a one-armed war god. Gwalchmai, a Welsh solar deity, became Sir Gawain. It is possible that Lancelot came from the Irish warrior god Lugh Lamhfada.

A bulk of the literature and history written about Arthur in the medieval period was motivated by political gain. In Geoffrey of Monmouth's The History of the Kings of Britain, Arthur was made to be a king. Geoffrey's aim was to prove that William the Conqueror was the rightful ruler of Britain. William, a vassal under the French King, claimed kinship to Arthur. He would otherwise not have been allowed to rule the lands he had conquered under the king.

"King Henry II could not endure the competition from a 'once and future king' of the United Celtic peoples, a king who might rise and come again at any moment" (1) Because of this embarrassment, Henry II paid people to change Arthur's image. He was then likened to a dwarf, and Cronos, the sleeping god of time. In a poem by Goethe, Arthur rode across the night sky, followed by the hounds of hell.

Cistercian monks altered the tales of Arthur's half-sister Morgana and his wife Guinevere. Morgana's first appearance in literature was in the firm of a healer. Romance then changed her into Arthur's half-sister. "The Cistercians believed that it was blasphemous to attribute healing or prophetic powers to a female who was not a member of a religious order and, furthermore, that such powers undermined the authority of the priesthood and the church" (2). The monks chose to make the Arthur legends religious allegories. Thus, Morgana became an evil enchantress. In the tales of Guinevere, the Cistercians turned Lancelot's chivalrous love into an adulterous affair.

The Romance writers modernized much of the Arthurian tales, creating a highly anachronistic world. It is in this new world that we find the disappearance of the bloody customs of the Dark Ages. War is now referred to as assembly. A fight to the death is called a joust. We even see the insertion of the Round Table and Guinevere's abduction into the legend.

The romances also had an affect on Arthur's wife Guinevere. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, her name was Ganhumara, and she was merely a peripheral character. The Romance writers portrayed her as more of a warrior princess. In the past she had been seen as a cupbearer like Queen Wealtheow of Beowulf. As Guinevere's part in the legend grew, Arthur appeared less and less.

In addition to literature, Arthurian legend has also influenced kings and political leaders. In England, the heir to the throne must imitate the life of Arthur. In the U.S., President John F. Kennedy tried to recreate the Arthurian utopia with his "Camelot Administration." In 1993 President Bill Clinton based his Presidential Inauguration on Kennedy's Camelot inspired celebration.

Arthur has taken the form of many characters over the years. His legends have taken from and inspired literature all over the world. Whether a fierce warrior chieftan, or a loving utopian King, Arthur has changed the face of literature forever.

Works Cited
King Arthur by Norma Lorre
King Arthur by David Day