The Historical Context of Antony and Cleopatra and the Effect on the Character of Cleopatra

The Egyptian queen in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra is perhaps the most familiar version of the historical figure of Cleopatra. His characterization of Cleopatra is the one that has endured through the centuries and made its way into the modern cultural consciousness. Shakespeare based his version of Cleopatra on the writings of Plutarch. Many aspects of Shakespeare's queen match up exactly with the Cleopatra described by Plutarch, but subtle differences do exist. Shakespeare's Cleopatra is a frivolous and petulant woman, a far cry from the learned, wise ruler of Plutarch's account. The reason for the changes becomes more obvious when the historical context in which the play was written is taken into account. Shakespeare's England was ruled by James I, a king frequently compared to Octavian who later became Caesar Augustus. If Rome is a stand in for England in the play, then Shakespeare could not possibly insinuate that Rome would move to conquer a sovereign nation under the control of a wise and intelligent ruler. By altering the character of Cleopatra, Shakespeare changes the conquest of Egypt into a benevolent act by the Roman emperor. Octavian doesn't take Egypt by force; he does its people a favor by removing an obviously incompetent ruler from the throne.

Plutarch's Cleopatra is a strong, well-spoken woman. She is unafraid of Antony, and "without feare taunted him thoroughly." (Bullough 275). She is not the most beautiful woman in the world, and indeed Plutarch says that the sight of her alone would not be enough to make a man fall in love, but "so sweete was her companie and conversacion, that a man could not possiblie but be taken." (Bullough 275). Cleopatra is also a woman possessed of "good grace" and "curteous nature" Plutarch makes special mention of her voice as "an instrument of musicke to divers sports and pastimes, the which she easely turned to any language that pleased her." (Bullough 275). She is also exceedingly intelligent, having learned many foreign languages in order to speak with the representatives of foreign nations directly without the necessity of an interpreter. Plutarch mentions that she speaks at least seven languages at least semi-fluently. When compared by Plutarch to the apparent ignorance of previous kings of Egypt, Cleopatra appears to be a highly competent ruler. (Bullough 275).

An article by Barbara Holland in Smithsonian offers further proof of the historical Cleopatra's competence. Cleopatra's educated nature was alluded to by the Roman Cicero. Cicero, like most Romans, was no fan of Cleopatra's, but even he had to grudgingly admit that she was literary and involved in "things having to do with learning." According to Holland, the Arab historian Al-Masudi stated that Cleopatra was the author of learned works, "a princess well versed in the sciences, disposed to the study of philosophy." Holland also mentions a cunning ploy of Cleopatra's to gain an audience with Caesar by wrapping herself up in cloth and being delivered to him as merchandise (56).

Shakespeare's Cleopatra is a very different woman. She's melodramatic, when the death of Fulvia calls Antony to return to Rome in Act I scene III, Cleopatra constantly interrupts him, refusing to even let him explain the reasons for his departure. She accuses Antony of lying to her, "Or thou, the greatest soldier in the world/Art turned the greatest liar." (lines 37-38). Cleopatra even goes so far as to feign a fainting spell and shortness of breath. "Cut my lace, Charmian, come./But let it be. I am quickly ill and well;/So Antony loves." (lines 73-75). She seems more like a lovesick fourteen-year-old girl than the middle-aged ruler of an entire country. Later, when a messenger arrives and deliversthe message that Antony has married Octavia, Cleopatra strikes the messenger repeatedly and even threatens his life, simply for delivering the message. (Act II Scene V 25-108).

Cleopatra seems to have very little to do with the day to day operation of her country. In fact, in the time it takes Antony to travel all the way to Rome and back, nothing at all of consequence seems to happen in Egypt. In Act I Scene V she speaks of her desire to drink mandragora and "sleep out this great gap of time/My Antony is away." (5-6). Later in the same scene she speaks of sending daily messages to Antony, even if in doing so she is required to send every person in Egypt. The comment is surely not meant to be taken literally, but it does seem to imply a lack of concern about the well-being of her subjects and a selfish attitude toward using the country's resources for her own ends.

The connection between Rome and England was a very real thing in the minds of Shakespeare's contemporaries. King James was repeatedly compared to Caesar Augustus, or the character of Octavian in Antony and Cleopatra. In his article "Jacobean Antony and Cleopatra" H. Neville Davies describes the many ways in which the English king was associated with the Roman emperor. James' coronation medal depicted "James wearing a laurel wreath, while a Latin inscription proclaimed him Caesar Augustus of Britain, Caesar the heir of the Caesars." (125). Many other elements of James' coronation ceremonies make this same connection. At the ceremonies' end, a figure of Electra bore a verse written by Ben Jonson:

"Long maist thou live, and see me thus appeare

As omenous a comet, from my spheare,

Unto thy raigne, as that did auspicate

So lasting glory to AUGUSTUS state."

These coronation ceremonies which loomed so fresh and large in the consciousness of the British people combined with the British nostalgia for Roman values created an instant and obvious connection between Octavian and James in the minds of Shakespeare's audience.

This connection between Rome and Britain presented a unique problem for Shakespeare's play. To glorify Rome as a conquering imperial power while Britain was transitioning to an imperial state itself would insult the king and his pacifist tendencies. Queen Cleopatra could not be portrayed as the strong, intelligent ruler characterized within Plutarch's account. Instead, Shakespeare portrays her as the self-serving, petulant, melodramatic ruler of a hedonistic and lethargic nation, completely oblivious to the needs of her people. With this kind of ruler, the audience has no choice to agree that Egypt will be far better off under the control of Rome. In this light, the actions of Caesar Augustus, and by extension King James, appear benevolent and wise. Egypt is liberated rather than forcefully conquered and brought into the empire. In this way, Shakespeare handles a difficult problem with the tact and skill that only he is capable of.

Works Cited:

Bullough, Geoffrey Ed. Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. London:

Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964.

Davies, H. Neville. "Jacobean Antony and Cleopatra ." Shakespeare Studies 17 (Jan.

1985): 123-57

Greenblatt, Stephen Ed. The Norton Shakespeare: Tragedies. 2^nd ed. New York: W.W.

Norton and Company, 2008.

Holland, Barbara. "Cleopatra: What kind of a woman was she, anyway?" Smithsonian

Vol. 27 Issue 11 (Feb 1997): 56-64