The History of Printing and Printmaking

Since the dawn of time, communication in one form or another has played a pivotal role in human development. As the human species evolved, more sophisticated means of communication, such as the printed word and image, revolutionized the sharing of thoughts and ideas, and added a touch of permanence to communication which had the ability to span generations and outlive the sender of the message, in a sense, giving them immortality. Specifically speaking of printed, and later pictorial images, their utility as communication tools and artistic expression is unique, and likewise give artists immortality.

The production of pictorial images, both in communicative and artistic capacities, need not be highly detailed or elaborate to be effective. William M. Ivins's aesthetic stressed communications, narrative and meaning in the production of pictorial images over the demonstration of technical skills. Ivins emphasizeds the advancement of scientific knowledge and technical information-and human progress-over the production of "Art", but Ivins also valused what he called the "humanity" of "great prints."

The aim of this essay is to track changes in the way ideas are communicated over time in print culture. Using Ivins's idea of "humanity" as a point-of-departure, this paper will examine the development of Andy Warhol's "Disaster Series" and track its (a) root sources in print media, and its significance with respect to (b) "collective memory"(cultural memory/popular memory) (c)socio-polictical meaning, and (d) Art.
William M. Ivins' Idea of Humanity

A solid understanding of the ways that ideas have been communicated over time is best begun by taking a look at the theories of William M. Ivins, who is recognized today as one of the most intriguing and knowledgeable commentators on the communication of ideas through printed images.

Ivins' ideas are well known today, decades after his death not for their complexity, but rather for their simplicity in both content and what they professed. As was mentioned previously as this paper was introduced, Ivins was an advocate of the "humanity" of the printed image, which is to say that the most compelling, informative, effective and lasting images are those that are not necessarily the most complex in production, but rather those that speak volumes through simple presentation with a minimum of technicality associated with them (Ivins). To be more specific, Ivins wrote the following in regard to the humanity of images:

"It may in general be assumed that the greater an artist the simpler his prints are from a strictly technical point of view. This does not mean that they are necessarily easy to diagnose... The more complex and artificial the technique of a print...the more certain one maybe that its maker was a craftsman translator and not a creative artist.... The world has a curious but encouraging habit of forgetting the virtuosi. The only two techniques that really are of artistic importance are rarely or never mentioned in essays and books upon the graphic techniques. They are those of pictorial imagination and sharp-sighted, sensitive draughtsmanship. No one can ever be taught these two great techniques, for they are part of the eternal mystery of personality and its growth, to be recognized but not to be rationalized or reduced to a method"(Ivins 146-47). Within the context of this research, what Ivins was saying in his analysis is that the graphic representations, indeed works of art, that best convey effective messages are not necessarily those that are the most beautiful, intricate, or created by the most famous of artists; rather, the best conveyed messages are often times the simplest.

Taking Ivins' theory a bit further, the complexity of a work of art, or indeed the reputation of the artist may overshadow the message that is attempting to be conveyed. As an example, one can take a look at the gay and lesbian art of the past several decades; while much of it has the potential to broadcast important messages about the human condition, interpersonal relationships, and indeed the nature of human existence, the fact that the art may have been created by a homosexual artist, regardless of the purpose of the graphic representation, tends to project a bias against the work by anti-homosexual forces in the public domain, government, and the arts (Meyer). Therefore, the important messages are never heard- the messenger literally causing the message to be ignored.

From the early theories of Ivins, to the revolutionary thought processes of Meyer, an evaluation of the communication of ideas through graphic representation naturally gravitates toward the works and philosophical viewpoints of one artist-Andy Warhol. Considered by many to be an artistic genius, a lunatic by some, and an enigma by all, Warhol exemplified Ivins' belief about complex communication through simplistic graphic representation, as evidenced by the large body of work that Warhol left behind when he passed away some years ago. In terms of these works, perhaps none are as fascinating and spectacular in their simplicity as his 'Disaster Series' which, when objectively evaluated, speaks volumes through simple artistic expression of a given message. Because of this, a deeper discussion of Warhol's 'Disaster Series' is in order.

Andy Warhol`s `Disaster Series`
Having grown up in post World War II America, Andy Warhol saw both the boom and bust of the American dream, as the prosperity of the 1950's and early 1960's came to a screeching halt due to history changing events like the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, deaths of American icons like James Dean and Marilyn Monroe, and the proliferation of atomic weapons which held the power to destroy the planet itself (Menil Collection). It was the drastic changes in culture, politics, and American values that seems to have inspired Warhol to turn to simple, yet dramatic artistic expression in order to make social commentary (Hackett). This expression, in retrospect known collectively as Warhol's 'Disaster Series', has a great deal to say about modern society from several pronounced points of view.

Warhol's Disaster Series'Root Sources in Print Media

As with much of society, Warhol was a follower of the media, but not in the worshipful sense that many others with less to say migh be. Rather, Warhol used the media, more precisely print media, to create some of the most poignant and striking images of the 'Disaster Series'. Perhaps one of the most interesting examples of Warhol art that simultaneously shows the power and hypocrisy of the media are the Before and After paintings that he did for The National Enquirer in the 1960s (Ganis). In these paintings, Warhol used artistic expression to show not only the growing trend in society to be obsessed with fame, beauty, and presenting a perfect image to the public, but in doing so through art, he likewise showed how the human being can in fact become a parody of themselves in the pursuit of something that is unrealistic to attain.

Taking yet another swipe at the growing trends toward status and creating an artificial appearance, Warhol used the American obsession with the automobile as a symbol of status and power in the work 5 Deaths and Saturday Disaster, which used ghastly images of a bloody car crash to show how quickly fortunes can reverse, as in the case of the accident victims, whose innocent Saturday drive turned into a one way ticket to eternity. In this instance, Warhol used a simple illustration to show the dark side of the American dream.

As a general statement, what can best be said about Warhol's 'Disaster Series' is that in, he attempted to issue a wake up call to everyone who was lulled into a false sense of security by the victory of World War II. Warhol wanted everyone to understand that new dangers and ills lie ahead for America, and everyone seemed too busy with themselves to notice. The 'Disaster Series' was likewise significant for what it communicated with respect to the collective memory of the nation.

The Significance of Warhol's Disaster Series with Respect to Collective Memory

Aside from opening the minds of Americans to the reality of everything around them, Warhol also used the 'Disaster Series' to revive the collective memories of Americans, also in an effort to project the message that certain events, horrible as they may seem and as convenient as they may be to forget, carry along with them a vital message that as the old saying goes, if ignored, will condemn the citizenry to repeat it. Such is the case in Warhol's "Jackie" series, which depicted Jacqueline Kennedy, the widow of slain President John F. Kennedy. In this work, Warhol used Jacqueline's beauty as a backdrop for not only the horror that the assassination of her husband represented for her as an individual, but also the collective grief of the nation, combined with the loud and clear message that disaster can visit America in the blink of an eye, and along with it comes pain, confusion, and a turn of events that literally changes the world in an instant (Frei and Printz).

Putting aside the literal interpretation of Warhol's depiction in "Jackie", the viewer is confronted with some weighty and rather unpleasant thoughts and realities; harkening back to the days of ancient Rome, the time-tested theory that all glory is fleeting is quite appropriate in this situation. Additionally, the need for constant vigilance to avoid disaster is a constant in a turbulent world. Realizing this, Warhol also addressed socio-political meaning in his works.

The Significance of Warhol's Disaster Series with Respect to Socio-Political Meaning

During the years of the Cold War, the mind of every American, from the school child up to the President of the United States himself, was obsessed with the possibility that war would break out at any moment, and that war, due to the proliferation of powerful weapons, may in fact bring about the end of civilization and the destruction of planet Earth. To Warhol, this possibility was quite weighty, and it frustrated him that in the midst of such possibilities, Americans were continuing on a path of self indulgence, pursuit of material things, and a quest for power and lustful thoughts. In response to this, and in an effort to make his point about the frality of the human race at the hands of armed aggressors, he created "Atomic Bomb", a colorful representation of the explosion of, naturally, an atomic bomb. To the casual observer, it would appear to be little more than a flashy piece of art created from someone else's original image. For Warhol, and those who understood his genius, however, "Atomic Bomb" represented something more- the reconsideration of the fact that true grave danger existed in the current political environment, and everyone needed to take action or prepare for the consequences of inactivity (Schellmann).

Another dark Warhol piece which reinforced the concept of the penalty for complacency can be seen in "Tuna Fish Disaster", which depicts the death of elderly women who blindly consumed canned tuna fish that was guaranteed to be safe and pure, and their lack of vigilience in checking out the tuna before they consumed it resulted in death from food poisoning. What this piece says about society is that everyone should treat each meal as if it were their last, as there is every possibility that it will be.

Lastly, the outright violence that permeated society and politics in the 1960s of America can likewise be seen in Warhol's "Electric Chair", containing stark images of a man who has been executed in, naturally, an electric chair. Putting aside the question of the guilt or innocence of the condemned man, and regardless of his receipt of due process through the courts, in its most literal translation, "Electric Chair" once again reinforces the delicate nature of life, its fleeting and temporary nature, and the ability of the state to take human life if it sees fit to do so.

Among Warhol's other numerous works that made socio-political commentary were works that depicted the civil rights struggles of the 1950's and 1960's, the decay of inner city America, and the senseless brutality of war. Collectively, these works cried out to the viewer to pay attention, get involved, and stay vigilant. In bright and living color, Andy Warhol was in a sense waving a caution flag in the face of America to show that the day of reckoning would come swiftly without productive dialogue and meaningful social change.

The Significance of Warhol's Disaster Series with Respect to Art

Viewing the works of Andy Warhol as significant art, in addition to their social and political value, there are aspects of his work that go back to the classic philosophy of Ivins which began this paper.

First, in drawing a parallel between Warhol and Ivins, one must consider once again the theory that the most effective messages do not always come from the most intricate works of art, the most elaborate, or the most famous artist (Ivins). Granted, Warhol enjoyed a certain degree of fame in his life, and is attributed with saying that everyone is famous for 15 minutes in their lives, but he was not regarded as a talented artist in the conventional sense. What Warhol did that makes him such a revered artist today, and brought him recognition in his time, is to follow the example set forth by Ivins and use a simple means of communication to send an important message. In one colorful image, Warhol had the uncanny ability to send a message that even the most skilled of writers could not deliver in many pages of text and thousands of words. He opened the eyes of the art crowd, as well as the person on the street, to the relevant issues of the day.

Yet another testament to Warhol's effectiveness as a communicator was the way that he used images that people may have looked at hundreds of times before in their original context in yet a new way through his interpretation and talent. Perhaps that is the best thing that can be said about an artist is that he or she was able to open minds and change lives; if this is an accurate statement, then it certainly is true that Andy Warhol, while following traditions older than he, blazed an artistic trail that we continue to discuss decades after his death.
Summary

This paper has combined traditional and contemporary views of art, and the elements of communication within art, to bring about a greater understanding of who we are as human beings, members of a given culture, and citizens of the world. In a larger sense, however, this paper has also shown that the human being must continue to consider varying points of view, keep an open mind, and be willing to change if society is to continue. When artistic expression is quashed due to prejudice or hatred, everyone suffers. For this reason, in closing, let it be said that without artistic expression and varying viewpoints and lifestyles, the human race may in fact be doomed to destroy itself.

Works Cited

Frei, G., and N. Printz. The Andy Warhol Catalogue Raissone. New York: Andy Warhol Foundation for the Fine Arts, 1997.

Ganis, W. Andy Warhol's Serial Photography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge U P, 2004.

Gugenheim Museum. Andy Warhol: CARS/Werner Spies. New York: Gugenheim Museum P, 1988.

Hackett, P. The Andy Warhol Diaries. New York: Warner Books, 1991.

Ivins, W. M. How Prints Look. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1943.

Ivins, W. M. Prints and Visual Communication. 2nd ed. Boston: MIT P, 1969.

Menil Collection. Andy Warhol: Death and Disasters. n.p.: n.p., 1998.

Meyer, R. Outlaw Representation: Censorship and Homosexuality in Twentieth Century American Art. Chicago: Beacon P, 2002.

Schellmann, J. Andy Warhol: Art from Art. New York: Schirmer-Mosel, 1995.