The Impact of Poverty on the Development of the Child

Scholarly research on child development clearly demonstrates that there are a host of variables that will impact this process. Ethnicity, socioeconomic status and even the highest educational level achieved by the parent(s) have all been implicated in negative developmental outcomes for the child. Even though researchers have spent a considerable amount of time and effort identifying and defining the specific variables that can impact the development of the child, most laymen have no real understanding of how these variables impact child development overall. What this effectively suggests is that while the current research on child development clearly elucidates the impediments of development, more attention needs to be given to the specific problems with child development that can occur as a result of these variables.

With the realization that more focus in research appears to be placed on the variables that impede the development of the child rather then the outcomes that are produced as a result of the variables, there is a clear impetus to examine how certain variables do indeed impact the overall development of the child. Using this as a basis for research, this investigation considers what has been written about the impact of poverty on the development of the child. Through a careful consideration of what has been written on this subject, it will be possible to demonstrate the core problems that can arise in the context of children's development as a direct result of poverty. Further, by examining the current literature on this subject a more integral understanding of the total impact that poverty has on child development will be elucidated.

Results

Scope of the Problem

In order to begin this investigation, it is first helpful to consider the overall scope of child poverty in the United States. Researchers examining this issue have been quick to note that the incidence of child poverty in the US is far from rare. Each year, more children fall into poverty, making it difficult for society to overcome this problem in the long term. Since the 1970s, child poverty in the US has grown by significantly (McLoyd, 1998). Currently, the National Center for Child Poverty (2006) estimates that approximately 58 percent of all children in the United States live in poor or low income families. As such, more than 73 million children now face the challenge of overcoming poverty.

Given the large number of children that are living in poverty in the United States, it is now possible to consider what has been written about the overall impact of poverty on the child's development. A precursory overview of what has been written about poverty and its effects on child development reveals that poverty has been implicated in a wide range of developmental problems for the child. McLoyd (1998) in his examination of what has been written on the impact of poverty on the child is reports that poverty has an impact on: the cognitive development of the child, the physical health status of the child, the academic achievement of the child, the behavioral characteristics of the child, and the psychological status of the child. What this research effectively suggests is that poverty has a myriad of impacts on the development of the child that can impact the entire scope of the child's functioning.

Research on Poverty and Child Development

With the realization that there are such a host of developmental issues that can occur as a result of the presence of poverty, it is helpful to consider what researchers have noted when it comes to the specific developmental problems that can occur. Further, it is pertinent to provide a clear understanding of why these developmental problems occur-i.e. how they are linked to the variable of poverty. Only by examining the reasons as to why poverty causes specific developmental problems will it be possible to provide a more integral understanding of the manner in which poverty actually impacts child development.

Poverty and Cognitive Development

Looking first at the issue of intelligence, some researchers have noted that poverty can have an impact on the cognitive development of the child. For instance, Allhusen, Belsky and Booth-LaForce (2005) in their investigation of poverty's impacts on the child argue that children that are chronically poor have lower cognitive abilities by third grade than children that have never been poor. In an effort to prove their claims, the authors followed four groups of children from birth to third grade. The four groups included: children that were chronically poor, children that were poor from birth to age three, children that were poor from ages 4 to 9 and children that were never poor. The authors found that children from chronically poor families had lower cognitive abilities. To explicate why this is so, Allhusen and coworkers go on to note that, "Chronically poor families provided lower quality childrearing environments, and children in these families showed lower cognitive performance and more behavior problems than did other children" (p. 795).

Despite the fact that there is clear evidence to suggest that poverty will have an impact on the cognitive development of the child, some research suggests that children reared in low-income families can exhibit a high degree of resilience in childhood and adolescence. According to Horning, Rouse and Gordon (2002) current research demonstrates that, "Poverty experienced during the first 5 years of a child's life decreases the probability of completed years of schooling more so than does poverty during middle childhood and adolescence, an effect that is more pronounced among African Americans than whites" (p. 156). Despite these consistent findings, however, Horning, Rouse and Gordon argue that there is some evidence that suggests that children reared in poverty can become notably resilient. At the present time however, more research is needed to quantify what specific characteristics make some children more resilient to poverty than others. What this research suggests is that all encompassing research that attempts to categorize all children raised in poverty may not provide an accurate picture for understanding the outcomes for all children.

Poverty and Physical Health

Other researchers examining the impact of poverty on the development of the child have reported that poverty can have a direct impact on the physical health of the child. Séguin, Qian, Potvin, Zunzunegui, and Frohlich (2003) in their examination of 2223 mothers and their infants note that children poverty impacted the number of times children were admitted to the hospital for health problems. According to these researchers, when variables impacting children's health were controlled for, the number of children from low-income homes admitted to the hospital was significantly higher than those for families of middle or high income. Although the researchers acknowledge that the specific etiology that links poor child health and poverty have not been well elucidated in the literature, the findings of this investigation seem to suggest that families with low incomes had not taken the necessary precautionary measures to protect their children from the onset of emergent health conditions. This resulted in an increase of hospital admissions for children from low-income families.

Soobader and Leclere (2000) have also examined the impact of poverty on the physical health status of the child. According to these authors, poverty can impact the ability of the family to receive and maintain health insurance. This specific issue can impact the overall health of the child. In low-income families, acquiring proper medical care remains a pervasive issue that has clear ramifications for the health outcomes of the child. Although Soobader and Leclere do argue that the issues facing low-income mothers when it comes to the health of their children is quite complex overall, the inability to access proper healthcare and insurance has a notable impact on the outcomes for children living in poverty. "The probability of a child being uninsured was associated with higher levels of income inequality at the county level and higher levels of poverty at the neighborhood level. Therefore, the deteriorating physical environment and the lack of social services compounds individual disadvantage" (p. 230).

Poverty and Behavioral Development

The impact of poverty on the child's behavioral development has also been investigated. Bradley, Corwyn and Burchinal (2001) utilized six family groups of parents to examine the impact of poverty on the development of the child. These family groups included: poor and non-poor European Americans, African Americans and Hispanic families. Children were followed from birth to age 13, in an effort to understand how poverty impacted the development of the child. The results of the investigation suggest that behavioral differences between poor and non-poor families from each ethnic group could be noted. Children from poor homes experienced higher degrees of behavioral problems. The researchers attribute these differences to the overall level of parent interaction with their children as well as the use of spanking as a punishment for the child. Overall, children from poor families had parents that were not as responsive to the needs of the child. Further parents from poor homes used spanking as a punishment more frequently than parents from non-poor families.

Eamon (2000) has also examined the impact of poverty on the behavioral development of the child. According to this author, " Children who live in economically disadvantaged families are more likely to experience socioemotional problems, such as impaired peer relations, low self-esteem, lower levels of sociability and initiative, and classroom externalizing, and internalizing behavior problems, than children who live in families with greater financial resources" (p. 143). Eamon notes that while this data clearly demonstrates a link between poverty and the behavioral outcomes of the child, what has not been effectively delineated is how this process occurs. As such, Eamon attempts to determine if parenting practices of parents from poor homes have an impact on the development of the behavior of the child. The findings of this study indicate that the physical and emotional environment for children living in poverty does have an impact on the behavior of the child:

As the number of years in poverty increase, children are more likely to experience problems such as sadness, anxiety, and dependency. Home environments that are unclean, cluttered, unsafe, and dark or perceptually monotonous contribute significantly to the relation between persistent poverty and children's internalizing behaviors. In lower-quality home physical environments, families may experience additional stress and social isolation, or parents may restrict their children's activities, factors that may result in children's internalizing behavior problems (p. 149).

Poverty and Social Development

Researchers examining the effects of poverty on the child have also examined the issue of how poverty impacts social development. Hobcraft and Kiernan (2001) in their investigation of the impact of poverty on the development of the child, examined data for adults at the age of 33, based on data from their childhood. These researchers found that adults who classified themselves as poor in childhood had become socially isolated in adolescence and adulthood. This isolation is directly linked to the development of at risk behaviors and teen pregnancy. The data presented by these authors clearly demonstrates that poverty can lead to the social isolation of the child from both peers and the family. In the end, this isolation will have ramifications for the development of the child well into adulthood.

Votruba-Drzal (2004) in her examination of poverty and its impact on the socialization of the child, found that the quality of child care provided to children in low-income families had a notable affect on the socialization of the child. According to this author, children from poor families are often placed in child care based on the ability of the parent(s) to afford service. For many low-income families this often means substandard care that does not provide for the social and cognitive development of the child. Votruba-Drzal found however, that when the quality of child care for low-income children was improved, so to were outcomes for children. Both cognitive development and socialization could be improved simply by providing better child care for child from families with low incomes.

Discussion

Synthesis of the Research

Synthesizing all of the information that has been provided in this investigation, it seem reasonable to argue that there are notable trends that can be seen by examining the scholarly literature with respect to the impact of poverty on the development of the child. First, the current literature clearly suggests that poverty has direct impacts on the total development of the child. From physical maturation to cognitive and social development, poverty has been implicated in impeding every aspect of the child's development. As such, when poverty is present in the household, this makes the child incredibly susceptible to a host of developmental complications that simply are not seen in children from more affluent backgrounds.

Second, while there is still some controversy over the etiology by which poverty impacts the development of the child, it is evident that poverty creates an all-encompassing environment that impacts the child on every level. Many of the research studies presented in this investigation argue that when poverty is present in the family, there are a host of parental issues that are present as well. For instance, Horning and Rouse (2002) note the case of Bryan, a four-year-old African American child. In their case analysis of Bryan, these authors note that this child is suffering as a result of the stress that his mother is experiencing. After working two jobs and attempting to parent three children on her own, Bryan's mother has little patience for Bryan's "behavior"-singing a fictitious song out loud. The case provide by Horning and Rouse provides a more integral understanding of the environment that encompasses children living in poverty. Mother and fathers living in this environment are so caught up in their efforts to financially support their children, that their frustration and anger is taken out on their children in many cases.

In addition to the overall atmosphere of stress that exists in the context of poverty, researchers have also noted the presence of poor parenting behaviors in low-income families (McLoyd, 1998; Bradley, Corwyn &Burchinal, 2001). In the context of the research presented by these authors, it becomes evident that individuals who live in poverty are perpetuating a cycle that has a long history. When children are raised in poverty, the experience a host of negative situations that impact their physical, mental, social and emotional health. Further, these situations impact their cognitive and academic development. These children, may not complete high school and, if they do, they more than likely will not go on to college. This limits the ability of these children to provide for their children in the future. As a result, these children grow into adults and perpetuate the cycle by creating the same home environment for their children. In the end, this new generation of children develop in an atmosphere that does not provide any benefits for improving developmental outcomes.

Finally, research presented in this investigation shows that while the cycle of poverty that impacts the child's development can have a significant impact on the child, there are cases in which the child can develop the resilience to overcome the environment that surrounds the child. Although resiliency in children from low-income homes has been recorded in the literature, at the present time, there is considerable controversy over what promulgates such resiliency overall. As such, it is evident that more research is needed so that scholars can better understand how children from these environments can recover and provide a better life for themselves and their children.

Conclusion

Unfortunately, the research presented in this investigation does not provide a claming vision for children living in poverty. Research on children in the United States indicates that, at the present time, more than 73 million children are living in poverty (National Center for Child Poverty, 2006). As the problems for children living in these environments are elucidated, the true impact of poverty on society becomes more evident. With 58 percent of all children living in poverty, it is reasonable to suspect that the next generation will face notable social and economic hardships. While there is evidence that resiliency can occur in the context of this situation, with no real evidence to demonstrate how resiliency occurs, the challenge of improving outcomes for children currently living in poverty are quite daunting.

At the present time, the United States does very little to promote the health and well being of children. Although the federal government and many state governments provide health insurance to low income families, in recent years the number and extent of the services provided through this healthcare network have been notably eroded. Further, even though low-income families can access basic healthcare for their children, this does not improve the quality of child care or mental health services that may be needed by the child. Despite a clear understanding of the problem, and its impact on society as a whole, the government and federal and state policymakers have done little to effectively address this issue and provide a better foundation for children living in poverty. Given that the number of children living in poverty has increased by double digits since the 1990s, the overall impact that child poverty will have on the United States will eventually be crippling both socially and economically.

Clearly, the issue that remains at this point is what can be done to change the cycle of poverty in the United States and improve outcomes for both today's children and tomorrow's society. Unfortunately, resolving this problem is one that remains a difficult challenge. While specific programs may improve outcomes for children, the costs of financing these programs is astronomical. As such, society needs to find a way to balance the needs of children living in poverty with the ability of the government to finance programs that could help improve outcomes for these children. The choices that would have to be made would clearly not be favored by many Americas as changes would more than likely involve increases in taxes for all citizens.

In the end, it is evident that as more children fall below the poverty line each year, something needs to be done to effectively reverse this trend. While it may not be possible to completely alleviate poverty in the United States, it should be possible to reduce the negative developmental problems of children living in poverty. Until enough social changes are made to ensure the developmental well being of children in America, policymakers and laymen alike must realize that society faces a precarious future. By addressing and improving outcomes for children living in poverty will it be possible for society to improve outcomes for the future. Thus, changes are needed now.

References

Allhusen, V., Belsky, J., & Booth-LaForce, C. (2005). Duration and developmental timing of poverty and children's cognitive and social development from birth though third grade. Child Development, 76(4), 795-810.

Bradley, R.H., Corwyn, R.F., & Burchinal, M. (2001). The home environments of children in the United States Part II: Relations with behavioral development through age thirteen. Child Development, 72(6), 1868-1886.

Eamon. M.K. (2000). Structure model of the effects of poverty on externalizing and internalizing behaviors of four- to five-year-old children. Social Work Research, 24(3), 143-155.

Hobcraft, J., & Kiernan, K. (2001). Childhood poverty, early motherhood and adult social exclusion. British Journal of Sociology, 52(3), 495-517.

Horning, L.E., & Rouse, K.A.G. (2002). Resilience in preschoolers and toddlers from low-income families. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29(3), 155-159.

McLoyd, V.C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185-204.

Séguin, L., Qian X., Potvin, L., Zunzunegui, M., & Frohlich, K.L. (2003). Effects of low income on infant birth. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 168(12), 1544-1538.

Soobader, M., & Leclere, F.B. (2000). Going upstream: Social inequality and children's health. Critical Public Health, 10(2), 217-232.

Votruba-Drzal. E. (2004). Child care and low-income children's development: Direct and moderated effects. Child Development, 75(1), 296-312.