The Use of Learning Theories for Adult Learners

Over the course of the twentieth century, education and psychology have become substantially intertwined. Researchers examining the applications of psychology have found that this discipline provides a notable method for helping educators understand cognition and the learning process. As a result, numerous learning theories have been developed in recent decades and successfully applied to various teaching disciplines. In particular, learning theories have been used to understand leaning processes in: children with special needs, children who use English as a second language (ESL), adult learners, distance education and learning utilizing the implantation of technology.

With the realization the learning theory can provide such an important method for examining various types of cognition that occur in the classroom, this investigation considers the use of learning theories for adult learners. Lieb (1991) in his assessment of adult learners notes that, "Compared to children and teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners" (Principles of...). As such, the specific methods that are used to improve education for adult learners must be critically assessed by the instructor. Utilizing this as a basis for research, this investigation considers a review of three learning theorists-Howard Gardner, Albert Bandura and Jean Piaget-and how their theories can be used for the process of adult education. By first examining the specific principles of adult education as outlined in the literature, it will be possible to elucidate the needs of adult learners. After this information has been examined, it will then be possible to apply learning theories in an effort to determine their efficacy for use in adult education. Through a careful consideration of both the needs of adult learners and the overall context of a specific theorist, a more integral understanding of how learning theories and psychology can be applied to education will be elucidated.

Adult Learning-Some Specifics

As noted above, adult learning is notably different from the learning that occurs for children and adolescents. With this in mind, it is first helpful to consider the specific distinctions that have been identified as part of the adult education spectrum. Garrison (1997) in his examination of adult learning notes that most adults are self-directed learners. Garrison goes on to argue that educators must keep this issue in mind when developing lesson plans and curriculum. This is because the self-directed nature of the adult learner will have an impact on the information gleaned in the classroom.

In addition to being self-directed, researchers also not that many adult students rely on their life experience for understanding the educational environment. Verbitskala (2004) contends that the use of life experiences helps the adult leaner connect with the learning environment. In addition, this author notes that the life experiences of the adult learner are used for socialization in the classroom. By relating the student's life experience to the larger context of what is taking place in the classroom educators can facilitate the process of learning. Verbitskala asserts that life experiences can be used to relate new information from the classroom setting.

Finally, researchers examining the specific context of adult learning note that most adult students are goal oriented and focused on practical outcomes. Illeris (2003) notes that adult learners often have clearly defined goals when the return to the classroom. In most instances, these learners return to acquire an advanced degree for employment. With these clearly defined goals in place, Illeris notes that adult learners will be practical in choosing the information on which they will focus. Educators need to take this issue into consideration when developing curriculum and lesson plans, as it will ultimately impact the information that is gleaned from a particular course.

Application of Learning Theories

With a rudimentary overview of the tenets of adult education elucidated, it is now possible to consider the application of learning theories. This application begins first with an explication and examination of the learning theory and it basic premise for application in the traditional classroom. After a general overview of the theory has been provided, it will then be possible to consider the strengths and weaknesses of the theory when it comes to improving educational outcomes for adult learners.

Howard Gardner-Theory of Multiple Intelligences

More than a decade ago, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to Campbell, Campbell and Dickinson (1996) Gardner believed that intelligence was more than what could be measured on a standardized test. Rather, Gardner argued that individuals not only displayed different types of intelligences, but also used these intelligences as a means for learning. In defining intelligence, Gardner argued that:

· Intelligence is the ability to solve problems that one encounters in real life.

· Intelligence is the ability to generate new problems to solve.

· Intelligence is the ability to make something or offer a service that is valued within one's culture (p. xv).

In addition do defining intelligence, Gardner also argued that learning could occur through one of seven intelligences. These include: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal. "Each intelligence appears to have its own developmental sequence, emerging and blossoming at different times in life" (p. xvii). Gardner believed that by developing a classroom in which each of these intelligences could be fostered, educators improve learning outcomes for all students.

Applying the basic context of learning as outlined by Gardner to the specific needs of adult learners, Gardner's learning theory can be assessed on three criteria: self-directed learning, the use of life experiences and practicality. With respect to the issue of self-directed learning, it seems reasonable to argue that Gardner's leaning theory enables all students to find their own direction in the classroom. As such, learning is self-directed in that the educator supports many different styles and types of learning. With respect to the issue of the use of life experiences, it is important to note that Gardner defines intelligence as "the ability to solve problems that one encounters in real life." With this in mind, life experiences are clearly critical to the learning experience. Finally, with respect to practicality, is seems reasonable to argue that Gardner's theory of learning promotes practicality by encouraging both students and educators to use learning methods and tools that are most familiar to the student.

Albert Bandura-Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura proposed the social learning theory by which, "learning could occur through the simple processes of observing someone else's activity" (Huitt, 2004). Further Bandura postulated that there was a four stage process involved in learning. The stages included the following: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Attention refers to the specific stimuli that attracts the individual's recognition while retention refers to whether or not the individual remembers the stimuli. Reproduction occurs when the individual reproduces behavior and motivation address the variables in the environment that will change the reproduction of the response.

Applying Bandura's work to the larger context of adult education, it seems reasonable to argue that this theory does not appear to support the tenets of adult learning. Looking again at the three issues of self-directed learning, using life experiences and practicality, it is clear that Bandura's theory does not support these tenets. Bandura contends that learning occurs principally though observation, as such, any type of learning the occurs outside of this format-i.e. self-directed learning-will not work in this setting. Further, because learning takes place from observation, this method will limit the overall importance of the individual's experiences. Finally, because Bandura's theory is so focused on observational learning, practicality in learning cannot always be ensured.

Jean Piaget-Constructivism

Jean Piaget advanced the theory of constructivism. According to Silverthorn (1999) Piaget developed this theory based on his belief that, "the acquisition of knowledge is a process of continuous self-construction" (Jean Piaget...). In order to reinforce this theory, Piaget identified four periods of growth from birth to adulthood: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations. The final stage which took place sometime between adolescence and adulthood defined human behavior as "Persons...are capable of thinking logically and abstractly. They can also reason theoretically" (Jean Piaget...). Although some variation on the age at which the individual reached these milestones of development is inherent in this system, each stage builds on the previous stage.

Applying the basic context of constructivism to the issue of adult learning, it seems reasonable to argue that constructivism supports the tenets of adult learning. With respect to the issue of self-directed learning, constructivism appears to provide a clear explication of the developmental stage of the learner-i.e. formal operations. For this reason, self-directed learning could be considered as part of this learning stage. For adults that have not mastered this stage, self-directed learning could be viewed as a means to move toward formal operations. Considering the issue of life experiences, it is evident that constructivism is predicated on the use of life experience as a means for promoting growth. As such, this tenet is clearly supported. With respect to the issue of practicality, it seems reasonable to argue that the nature of the constructivist approach-one in which the goals of learning can be negotiated-also supports adult learning.

Conclusion

When the three theories are compared overall, it becomes evident that Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence and Piaget's constructivism appear to have the most applicability to adult learners. Bandura's social learning theory does not appear to provide adult learners with the support needed for success. Examining both the theory of multiple intelligences and constructivism, one could effectively argue that the nature of these two approaches is similar. Both learning theories attempt to utilize the experiences and talents of the learner and both learning theories support the need for self-directed learning.

Even though these theories are similar in nature, the constructivist approach seems to best suit the needs of the adult learner overall. This is because the constructivist approach is fully focused on the experiences of the individual as the basis for learning. With this as a basis for learning the student is able to reap the benefits of self-directed learning and practicality in goal setting. While Gardner's theory supports these tenets, it is grounded in them. Thus, when these three learning theories are examined, the analysis demonstrates that constructivism is indeed the best choice for the adult learner.

References

Campbell, L., Campbell, B., & Dickinson, D. (1996). Teaching & Learning Through Multiple Intelligences. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Garrison, D.R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18-34.

Huitt, W. (2004). Observational (social) learning: An overview. Valdosta State University. Accessed July 14, 2006 at: http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/soccog/soclrn..html.

Illeris, K. (2003). Adult education as experience be the learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(1), 13-24.

Lieb, S. (1991). Principles of adult learning. Honolulu Community College. Accessed July 14, 2006 at: http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults-2.htm.

Silverthorn, P. (1999). Piaget's theory of development. Helen A. Keller Institute for Human Disabilities. Accessed July 14, 2006 at: http://chd.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/theorists/constructivism/Piaget.htm.

Verbitskala, N.O. (2004). The education of adults on the basis of their life experience. Russian Education & Society, 46(2), 72-81.