The Life and Death of the Oceans

The existence of the oceans allowed the first life to form, grow, and reproduce. The oceans create atmosphere, weather, and climate. They supply the world with an abundance of life, much of which supplies humans, among others, with transportation, food, medicines, and recreation. While other species may enjoy the benefits of the oceans, humans have become so wide spread and detached from the world around them that they have effectively brought the oceans to the brink of extinction in a very short time (Woodard, 2000). While the oceans count time in the billions of years, humans count time in years or decades. In the last fifteen decades, human activity has decimated a significant portion of the ocean, creating "dead zones" where there is no oxygen to support life. The ocean chemistry is becoming dangerously acidic due to the burning of fossil fuels and the dumping of waste in the oceans, and may trigger a non-reversible chain reaction of extinction, say before the end of this century (Global warming, 2006). The goal is to motivate, educate, and offer possible solutions to the problem, however it will not work until people across the globe work together.

Introduction

All life originated in the oceans. There are hundreds of thousands of more species in the oceans shallows and depths than on all the land in the world. The planet's surface is two-thirds ocean, supplying many essential functions in the global ecosystem (Day, 1999). Liquid water is essential for the formation and continuation of life. The oceans retain as much heat as 1000 atmospheres, moderating the global climate (Whipple, 1983). As a source of food, one quarter of the world's protein comes from the sea (Endangered, 2004). Differences in air and water temperature create weather by fueling the wind and ocean currents, regulating drought, rainfall, and storm conditions. The oceans make the atmosphere itself possible, as water vapor makes up a large part of the atmosphere (Day, 1999). In the area of medicines, hundreds of beneficial species have been discovered, and the research has just begun (Endangered, 1999).

The problem is that the oceans are not infinite and they are not invulnerable. Enough stress has been put on the oceans in the last century to bring the oceans to the brink of disaster (Woodard, 2000). This stress is not likely to be alleviated in the near future to any significant degree. The oceans are facing a mass extinction on a scale with the extinction of the dinosaurs, at a 90% death rate (Golley, 1998). Human activity is killing the oceans, source of all life, in a blink of the planet's eye. The difference is that a natural agent is not causing this disaster, and it is not irreversible yet.
Background

With the industrial revolution, people were able to multiply and expand as never before in history. Natural resources were consumed at an astronomical rate. Coastal regions were developed without thought to what purpose they served. The world population ballooned to an unprecedented number, 60% of which is concentrated to within 50 miles of the ocean shores (Woodard, 2000). Toxins and pollutants were dumped into the oceans and thought to be washed harmlessly away (TED Case, 2006). Species have been transferred from their natural geographic locations into new places that have not had the evolutionary exposure to enable them to survive the arrival of the new species (Golley, 1998). Fisheries took all that they could, causing a lot of collateral damage in the decreases in fish stock, damage to ocean habitats, and excessively deadly bycatch counts (Species at, 2006). Agricultural runoff of pesticides and fertilizers, as well as the deterioration of the shorelines of developed areas present their own problems.
Purpose and Audience

The purpose is to draw attention to the extreme danger that one of the planet's most fruitful resources is in. In understanding these dangers, steps can be taken to minimize, or even reverse, the damage to the oceans before the imbalance is such that it starts a cascade reaction. The reaction would shut down the entire ecosystem, including life on land and air, as well as in the oceans. This should be the concern of every responsible adult on the planet, which is probably what it will take to make the necessary changes.
Data Sources

Sources used in researching this subject include Baker College Library, Jackson District Library, Mott Library, scientific journals, and internet sources. All information used is accessible to the general public.

Working Definitions

Epipelagic Zone- warm, mixed surface waters, 20°-11°C, penetrated by the full light spectrum, extends to 200 meters below the surface and endures the pressure of twenty atmospheres (Day, 1999).

Mesopelagic Zone- Buffer between the warm surface waters and the deeper, colder water, penetrated by blue and green of the light spectrum, extends from 200-1000 meters below the surface and endures the pressure of one hundred atmospheres (Day, 1999).

Bathypelagic Zone- Cold waters of the deep, 2°- ­1°C, extending from 1000-4000 meters below the surface and enduring the pressure of four hundred atmospheres (Day, 1999).

Abyssopelagic Zone- Cold waters of the ocean abyssal plains and trenches, 2°- -1°C, extending from 4000-6000, and in some places 10,000 meters below the surface of the water and enduring the pressure of 600-1000 atmospheres (Day, 1999).

Biomass- Accumulated mass of all organisms in a given area (Art, 1993).

Plankton- All organisms (bacteria, protests, plants, and animals) that float in the surface waters and drift with the ocean currents (Art, 1993).
Limitations

Due to the immensity and diversity of the oceans, this report must be limited to a select number and type of habitat. Chemistry of the oceans has been shortened and simplified. The actions of individuals have been largely ignored, as they are not truly measurable and very difficult to address.
Scope

The functions of the ocean and the inter-connected nature of ecosystems were briefly explained. Human activity within the ocean domain is then examined. Finally, possible solutions or alternatives to present day methods are addressed.
Collected Data

The oceans of the planet are vital to the survival of all of the life that inhabits it (Day, 1999). Most animals make a life performing a specific function, with a specific set of checks and balances, but not the human animal. Human activity is killing the oceans, source of all life, in a blink of the planet's eye (Endangered, 1999).

The earth is estimated to be around 4.6 billion years old, and to have sustained life for as much as three quarters of that time. Fossil remains dated at 3.5 billion years ago indicate the presence of simple life forms, all of which originated in the sea, not on land or in fresh water (Whipple, 1983).

The oceans perform many environmental services. They supply most of the water that falls as fresh water precipitation on land, as well as the sea, which is necessary for the basic function of all life. The ocean's water holds as much as one thousand times more heat than the atmosphere, its nearest neighbor (Global, 2006). The interaction of water columns rising from and falling to the ocean floor cycles oxygen, nutrients, and water of different temperatures throughout the oceans (Day, 1999). The warm and cold water is distributed, giving a small fraction of its heat to the air above. The close relationship between water and air temperature mutually power ocean and air currents, which creates weather and climates throughout the world. The oceans even provide the water vapor necessary to sustain the atmosphere itself (Woodard, 2000).

The ocean waters and its inhabitants can act as a toxic filter for some things, such as biological waste, but that protection has its limits. Oceans can only absorb so much before they are saturated (Ocean pollution, 2006). The effects of some chemicals are immediately deadly. Others take time to build up in the victim before finally killing it. This drastically intensifies the toxicity of the animal to any would-be consumers. Also, some organisms are better able to resist and recover from a chemical assault. The oceans are alkaline in nature, meaning that they are less acidic than fresh water. The abundance of waste and toxic material dumped into the oceans are making them become more acidic with time. This will eventually kill much of the life in the sea (Global, 2006).

The oceans also supply the world with an abundance of food. One quarter of all protein that humans consume world wide, originate in the sea (Endangered, 2004). Medicinal and practical value is also found in many hundreds of marine plant and animal life (Woodard, 2000).

The life spectrum of the oceans is divided into four main sections. The oceans reach depths of 10,000 meters, with the pressures of 1000 atmospheres (Day, 1998). They cover an area of 321.674 million cubic miles, or almost 70% of the Earth's surface (Whipple, 1983). These sections are determined by the degree of light able to penetrate the water, water pressure, and water temperature. The two most populated zones, the Epipelagic and Mesopelagic, are nearer the surface. The less populated, and much less hospitable, bottom two are called the Bathypelagic zone and the Abyssopelagic zone (Day, 1998). Within the tropic Epipelagic and Mesopelagic zones, coral reefs are formed in the warm water. The reefs provide food and marine habitat, as well as protection for the adjoining shoreline (Intro to, 2006).

Corals thrive in the warm, shallow, tropical waters of the world. Coral polyps are spawned, they drift in the current, settle, bud off identical polyp clones, and spawn a new generation. This process repeats hundreds of times to form a single reef. The powerful skeletons of the reefs are formed from the calcium carbonate shells of the coral polyps (Categories, 2006).

Zooxanthellae are a type of algae that has formed a symbiotic relationship with the coral. The algae take light energy and produce food through photosynthesis, giving the corals their colors. The algae also help to cement the structure together by secreting calcium compounds. In return, the corals provide protection and lodging within the light spectrum necessary for the algae to photosynthesize (Coral reef, 2006).

Reefs provide many ecological services. Among them are habitat building, protection and camouflage for inhabitants, food production, important natural product bases for drugs and medicines, expansive beauty, and protection for the shore bound by breaking large waves before they reach the shore. Reefs are very fragile, however, susceptible in nature to damage from disease, bleaching, changes in salinity of the sea water, toxins, earthquakes, and hurricanes (Categories, 2006).

In the sea, the main producers (food making organisms) are microscopic, but their combined activity is far greater than that of all of the trees on land (Woodard, 2000). These producers are called plankton, and they are a key component in the marine food web, feeding animals as diverse as corals and whales. The animals that feed on them are frequently prey animals themselves, creating sustenance for the animals that make up the next rung on the food chain (Coral reef, 2006).

Each part in nature has a purpose, a function, and a system of checks and balances that ensures that the subject does not overgrow its habitat. Many in the scientific community call this the web of life (Art, 1993). Connections in the web run from the ice caps to active volcanoes, the air, the land, and the water. They also encompass the soil, the plants, the animals, and even the living and the dead. Also, the predator-prey relationship is a connection in which one or many animals die so that another may live. The balance is in not taking so many as to cause the extinction of the prey animal, as that would also likely bring about the death of the predator (Day, 1998).

Extinctions can and have occurred on a global scale. Extinctions of this sort are called mass extinctions. There have been three mass extinctions documented worldwide, without doubt. The most famous mass extinction is that of the dinosaurs, when 90% of all animal and plant species passed into oblivion. Smaller scale extinctions have been much more frequent (Golley, 1998). Unfortunately, the Earth is in the midst of the fourth mass extinction in known history. Human activity is having a dramatic and devastating effect on the Earth's web. The wide spread death of entire species is happening in all corners of the world (Woodard, 2000).
The industrial revolution sparked growth and expansion of almost all human populations. The eighteenth century saw the end of the dodo bird and the Tasmanian tiger. Since then entire populations of fish, whales, birds, reptiles, and predatory masters have been burned from the web. There have likely been hundreds of other species wiped out already that were never discovered before their demise (Endangered, 2006).

A large contributor to the decimation of the natural world is the population explosion that humans have experienced in the last 150 years. Earth's human population is estimated at over six billion, 60% of which is concentrated within fifty miles of the ocean (Day, 1999). This high concentration of humans creates immense quantities of waste to be ejected through rivers, streams, and sewer pipes to the open ocean. Life in these waterways is often choked out due to contaminated water supplies and the overgrowth of bacteria that feed on and break down the biological wastes. This trend continues into the ocean ecosystem (Ocean, 2006).

The development of coastlines is also causing dangerous fallout. The land's edges are eroding into the oceans at an accelerated rate due to the digging and building that those busy people are always doing. With rain, or even just gravity, large amounts of land slough off into the ocean. The soil clouds the water and eclipses the sun, preventing corals and floating plankton from creating food. The silt also settles all over coral reefs, choking the light and life from the corals (Threats, 2006).

Breeding grounds of ocean life are being hit particularly hard. The expansion of aqua-culture has netted off large portions of the ocean along the coasts, completely walling off or dramatically reducing access to rivers and wetlands that have been used for millennia as nurseries for young ocean species (Wetland, 2006). Commercial salmon fisheries are suffering due to the reduced numbers of fish able to make it back up the rivers to the same spawning grounds where they, themselves, originated (Endangered, 2006).

Essential wetlands are being overrun by human development and pollution. With the destruction of the wetlands comes the destruction of countless species. A healthy wetland ecosystem is easy to identify. If frogs are heard or seen in abundance the wetland is in good health. In addition to normal respiration, frogs and other amphibious species absorb oxygen and other substances through pores in their skin. Because of this, if there is an imbalance in the water or land, the amphibians are going to be the first and hardest hit range of species (Wetland, 2006).

The artificial transportation of species into new geographical locations is a widespread and deadly practice. This is most frequently the result of the pet trade and agri/aquaculture. The Mediterranean Sea, widely renowned for its beauty, is currently in a crisis. A hearty species of seaweed was brought from the Indian Ocean, where it was geographically isolated, into a recreational saltwater fish tank in Europe. When the tank was drained and cleaned, spores of the plant were washed out into the inland sea. There the spores grew and multiplied. The seaweed is largely inedible to the inhabitants of the sea, and the conditions are right for it to flourish. The slow, devastating march of the seaweed over the seafloor is killing all of the life in its path. It first replaces ocean floor habitat and producers, then the organisms that feed on those producers starve, and on up the chain (Woodard, 2000).

Nutria are a type of mid-size aquatic rodent that somewhat resemble beavers. In a 180-day period a female can have given birth to two litters, one to thirteen babies per litter, and already be pregnant with a third. The babies do drink milk from their mother's teats, located high on the side of the body to allow nursing even while swimming, for seven to eight weeks after birth. They also begin eating vegetation within hours of birth (Nutria biology, 2006).
They were imported to Louisiana marshes from South America for the fur trade in the 1930's. Some of the animals transitioned to the wild. In the 1940's, nutria were being promoted as biological agents for controlling weeds and transplanted throughout Southern Louisiana. By the 1950's there were problems with damage done to marshes, sugar cane fields, and levee systems due to overgrazing and excavation. In 2002, legislation went through in Louisiana for an incentive program of trapping nutria to reduce the burden of overpopulation (Nutria population, 2006).

Overexploitation of habitat is a problem for humans, as well; large scale fisheries being at the root. Large fishery boats are so efficient that they only need employ one to five men per million pounds of fish hauled in. In smaller operations, sixty to one hundred people would be employed to haul in the same amount of catch. This makes the larger, more expensive and better-equipped fishing boats more economical for the fisheries. It also puts a lot of fishermen out of work (Endangered, 2004).

Bycatch is an innocuous word for the unintentional slaughter of marine organisms caught and killed, but not targeted, by commercial fisheries. Many non-target fish are caught, but also dolphins, porpoises, sea lions, penguins, and whales (Cetacean, 2006). Some of the fishing nets used are deliberately dragged along the ocean floor as with shrimp fishing. This practice decimates all floor habitats existing in the affected areas. Smaller animals are tangled up in nets and unable to surface for a breath of air. Larger animals may break free, but have to endure dragging the equipment for long periods. This can cause debilitating injuries and even slow death (Gillnet, 2006). A recent estimate averaged the annual deaths of these animals at as many as 1000 per day. Many species have been reduced to less than one hundred individuals remaining (Species, 2006).

There are many fishing methods employed around the world. A select few are exceedingly destructive and widespread. Gillnets acquired their name from their tendency to snag the gills when a fish hits the net and tries to back away. Gillnets can have different sized weaves; the larger ones can allow smaller fish to pass through the holes, unharmed. Not all gillnets are designed for large animals. Some nets are attached to the ocean floor, while others are allowed to drift. Drift nets are easily lost and continue to fish indefinitely in the open ocean. Drift nets are currently banned in the Baltic Sea, the European Union, and other international waters, as gillnets may be the single greatest direct threat to porpoise and dolphin populations across the world (Gillnets, 2006).

Trawl nets are dragged along the sea floor or in the open water. The net is held open with a beam or heavy doors on either side of the mouth of the cone-shaped net. The catch netted is pushed to the very end of the net as it is pulled aboard the ship, crushing the organisms contained within. Bycatch is discarded but usually don't survive. Trawlers used to avoid corals and other seafloor structures, but the innovative human mind has constructed a system of wheels on the bottom of the net, allowing it to travel over these structures and increase the damage to essential ecosystems (Trawl, 2006).

Purse Seines are used for catching entire schools of fish. A school is often tempted to the net with debris, a shining light, or dolphin pursuit. Dolphin spotting often helps in locating a school of fish. The dolphins pen the fish in together, as a good sheep dog does its charges. The side effect is that when the purse strings are pulled, dolphins often become trapped along with the fish (Purse, 2006).

Longlines do not utilize nets in fishing. They consist of one long mainline and many smaller lines that run off of the mainline with hooks and bait. The objective preys are large fish, but they attract more than just the intended species. Pilot whales are frequently caught as bycatch. In addition, some fishermen have taken to protecting their catch from sperm whales, killer whales, and false killer whales with dynamite and rifles (Longline, 2006).

In addition to the bycatch and pest problems, boats often have to drop anchor to hold position. Big boats require large, heavy anchors, which are dropped blindly to the ocean floor, hitting any marine animals in the water between the boat and the ocean floor. When the anchor grounds out, it can cause damage to coral reefs and other ocean habitats (Threats, 2006).

Development of the coastlines is a major factor in the destruction of the reefs. More than four million tons of silt is dredged from rivers and bays every year to allow boat passage, leading to the disposal of the silt in other locations (Ocean, 2006). The infiltration of the edges of the land creates weakness in their construction. This leads to erosion and landslides. The excess of soil makes the water murky, not allowing sunlight to penetrate deep enough to fuel the photosynthesis of the coral algae. As a result the algae and coral slowly starve to death. Silt can also create a thick layer of mud on the surface of the reef, strangling the life out of the reefs. The habitat dies and then its inhabitants (Threats, 2006).
Agricultural runoff can be lethal to reefs. Fertilizers and pesticides can each be destructive forces. Fertilizer runoff can cause an overgrowth of algae, which can coat the reef, killing the polyps and their attendant algae. Pesticides are toxins, which can kill the reef organisms directly (Woodard, 2000).

Untreated sewage drained into the oceans carry many harmful bacteria. Also, the massive contributions of nutrients promote the growth of toxic algae, creating algae blooms. The blooms produce neurotoxins (poisons of the nervous system) and digestive enzymes. In this way they kill and digest every organism that comes into contact with the bloom. This phenomenon colors the water, according to the type of algae responsible, and is often called a red tide (Ocean, 2006).

Corals are also under attack by fisherman. Over fishing has caused a major reduction in the population of reef fishes. Desperate fishermen have taken to cyanide seeding and dynamiting coral reefs to collect what fish they can. They are bringing these fish further along the path to extinction and destroying the habitat that would allow population resurgence. There is also the potential of cyanide poisoning of any animals, including humans, that later consume the fish (Endangered, 1999).
Toxic materials (metals, chemicals, or radioactive materials) accumulate in the ocean sediment. This affects the bottom dwelling organisms and those that feed on them. With the larger boats in use (15' draft in 1800's; 65' draft presently) most rivers and bays are dredged every year, relocating enough sedimentary material to create a four-lane highway, 20' thick that ran from New York to Los Angeles (Ocean, 2006).

All of the nuclear countries in the world have had some responsibility in the poisoning of the oceans. Dumping of these wastes at sea has been outlawed for more than thirty years, except in some international waters. Most nuclear capable countries have been increasingly skillful in the treatment and disposal of toxic waste. They dispense immense sums of money in the knowledge that they are creating an incredible danger to the world, and doing what they can to minimize its effects. Russia has not been so conscientious. The country has dumped more than 2.5 million curies of radioactive water, 7000 tons of solid nuclear waste, 9 nuclear subs (some equipped with nuclear warheads), 21 nuclear reactors, and millions of gallons of liquid waste into the Arctic Ocean since the 1950s. The seamen would often cut holes in the containers if they didn't sink. The Sea of Japan has also suffered from the dumping policies of Russia (TED, 2006).

To allow for understanding, one must realize that an object with a single curie of radio-activity is enough to kill with close or prolonged contact. Seals and dolphins in the Arctic and Kara Seas have been dying of blood cancer variations and reproductive issues. This suggests that there are many radioactive fish below them. Six million starfish, shellfish, porpoises, and seals washed up on the shores of the White Sea, and the fish populations died or migrated away in 1990. No human poisonings have been equivocally proven (TED, 2006).

Oil spills and deep sea drilling have done their part in the destruction. Animals caught in oil slicks are poisoned, and often suffer from hypothermia in the cold water. They also tend to lose buoyancy and drown. Tectonic stresses are of major concern in drilling, as weaknesses in the crust can lead to many types of disaster. Leakage at the drill site can be extensive, and many ocean dwelling animals injure themselves on the drilling structure (Oil spills, 2006).

Extraction of marine materials for medical or practical use is becoming dangerous in the sheer volume removed from the environment annually (Endangered, 2006). Tourism and the pet trade are causing the wholesale removal of essential species from the oceans, purely for the pleasure of humans (Animals, 2006). Individuals also tend to use leaky boats in the oceans and dump garbage over the side (Ocean, 2006).

The final and most ominous factor in the oceans demise is that of global warming. Fossil fuel burning has made carbon accumulate in the atmosphere and in the oceans. Carbon is a heat-retaining molecule, which raises the ambient temperature of the planet. Roughly 10% of all fossil fuel emissions remain in the atmosphere. 30-40% is absorbed into the oceans or falls as acid rain on land. The remaining 50% is released into space or taken up by plants and animals. In water, carbon also takes on a quality of acidity when in high concentrations. The changes in ph alter the general makeup and function of seawater, which is naturally alkaline (Global, 2006).

The present level of accumulation in the oceans has already created dead zones, devoid of life and rich in carbon. The oceans are retaining more heat and creating more acid rain. This melts the ice caps, which raises water levels, which can retain more heat and carbon, and on around again (Global, 2006). This elevated level of acidity also breaks the molecular bonds that are formed in the skeletons of coral reefs and countless species of shelled marine life, causing them to disintegrate (Categories, 2006). Plankton are also at great risk if the acidity of the oceans continue to rise. Being a keystone species, if the plankton are killed off it will cause the widespread decimation of countless ocean organisms (Day, 1999).

Conclusion

Summary of Findings

The land, air, and oceans are not separate entities. They are all aspects of the whole. As with ants, a single human is relatively harmless. Taken cumulatively, the damage caused by the species can be astronomical. Human activity is greatly influencing the state of the oceans. The state of the oceans is greatly influencing that of the land and air. These effects will soon be felt in all corners of the world (Global, 2006).

Comprehensive Interpretation of Findings

Human activity brought the world into this plight. Human ingenuity, to a large extent, can bring it back from the edge. This will require international cooperation, dedication, education, and a well-planned system for recovery.
Recommendations

Coastal populations are engorged to the point that they cannot continue to be sustained (Golley, 1998). Steps must be taken to move or otherwise reduce the population. This could be accomplished through inland relocation or the institution of reproduction laws. China currently uses and enforces reproduction laws, as it has the largest population and density of any country in the world (Endangered, 2004). These methods may seem disagreeable to the general public as it infringes on the personal liberties that are currently taken for granted. However, population regulation is becoming more of a concern. These steps would greatly reduce the shore stress caused by the population density, as well as the pollution shunted into the oceans.

It is very possible that these laws will become inevitable, as the world population expands past what the Earth can sustain. On the other hand, these laws may become obsolete if there is an ecological breakdown. Hunger and disease will then cull the human population to a more suitable number (Whipple, 1983).

The wetlands are an invaluable component in the life cycles of many species. Water should not be diverted from wetlands. Building plans for dams and irrigation channels should become moratorium activities, as the existing structures are sufficient for attending to human needs (Wetland, 2006). A ban should also be placed on commercial and residential development of the wetlands. They should become sanctuaries, protected land for wildlife. The ban could allow for scientific research access and guided tours, as done in caves and museums to prevent damage of rare, beautiful, or necessary items.

Overexploitation should be attacked from several angles. Fishing could be restricted to specific locations and seasons. This would reduce the volume of fish caught annually and could also be timed to avoid whale and dolphin migrations. On the other hand, fishing grounds could be sold to private owners (Endangered, 1999). When a job must be done quickly and then is no longer accessible, it is human nature to take as much as possible before moving on. If individuals own their own supply, they tend to take what they need without overexploitation. This prevents them from exhausting the supply and bankrupting themselves.

Bycatch reduction is a priority in halting the pointless massacre of marine animals not being targeted. Research is ongoing on the seasonal movements of sea animals. Pingers, sound producing devises, are being used on some fishing nets (Cetacean, 2006). These devises can alert ocean mammals to the presence of nets or even deter them from the area. Testing with different frequencies is underway with promising results. Often, a 75% decrease in mammal bycatch is reported with the use of pingers (Effectiveness,2006).

Nets can also be modified. Floatation and anchoring devises can allow for openings above and below the nets to allow passage of sea animals (Cetacean, 2006). Drift nets should be outlawed world-wide. The remaining nets should be enlarged to allow for the passage of smaller organisms. Net dragging should be disallowed over reef systems. Fishing should be reduced, possibly requiring a system similar to that used in deer licensing. Commercial mooring sites should be installed along the coasts to put a stop to anchor damage (Threats, 2006). The reefs should also be patrolled to enforce the protection lows. Environmental education should be required to put a stop to cyanide seeding and dynamiting of the reefs.

Money needs to be put into installing a fully functional sewage treatment plant into every large town. The cost of construction is high, but they only have to be built once. The service that they perform repays the cost many times over (Pollution, 2006).

Coastal development can be reduced and reused. Zoning laws can allow for greater protection of the coasts. Decrepit or condemned properties can be torn down and built over the exposed site. Rather than mowing down pristine coastline, public hazards and eyesores can be removed from the face of the planet.

Species should not be allowed to be transported from their natural geographical location. The Black Sea, a geographically isolated inland sea, has been completely decimated by the presence of a small species of jellyfish, not native to the sea. With the exception of these jellyfish, the sea is now almost entirely devoid of life (Day, 1999).

Aquaculture pens should be scaled down. Some need to be relocated to allow for breeding activity. New methods of rearing captive sea life should be explored, and fisheries should be given incentives to buy stockfish from aquaculturists (Woodard, 2000).

The dumping of toxic wastes must be more closely guarded against. Waste treatment facilities need to be made more widely available, and hopefully more economical to build and operate. Penalties for disobedience of the dumping laws should be made stiffer, education required, and applied in areas that will have the greatest effect in changing the attitudes of the offenders.

Oil spills are becoming a rare occurrence. Oil tankers, by international law, must all be fitted with a double hull by the year 2015 (Oil spills, 2006). This allows for collisions and even breaches of the outer hull, without penetration to the holding tanks located within the inner hull. Quick response teams need to be made more widely available and equipped with adequate supplies. These supplies include chemical oil breakdown equipment and populations of bacteria that specifically break the molecular bonds that make up oil (Oil spills, 2006).

Ocean oil drilling will continue until alternative energy can be used in large applications. In the mean time, research can continue on methods of minimizing the damages to the ocean habitat. This could possibly include new methods of drilling, or the use of light sticks and pingers along the structure to warn animals of its presence (Pingers, 2006).

Alternative sources of energy are being pursued around the world. The most promising resources are easily renewable and will not cause an increase in greenhouse gasses (Global, 2006). A few of the frontrunners in the race for alternative fuel sources are ethanol (made from corn), methane (made from giant kelp), solar energy, and ocean wave energy. The final two are endlessly renewable and cost no money to create, while the first two require space, care, processing and money. The methods of extracting the energy for use are still being worked out (Ocean, 2006).

Tourism and pet trade are big business for many of the most exotic and beautiful places on the planet. People take vacations to relax from their daily lives, and often want to take a piece of paradise home with them (Threats, 2006). Coral reefs are being harvested faster than they can recover so that someone can make some money, and someone else can have more than just pictures of their trip.

The pet trade actively transports species to areas foreign to them, stripping the wild populations. This can cause irreparable damage to both the new location, and the old. Restriction of the pet trade is already in effect for some species, but the widespread transport of plants and animals has not stopped. The long-term effects of this global translocation of species have yet to be seen (Whipple, 1983).

Regular inspections of all marine vessels venturing into the water need to be carried out efficiently and without exception. Minimum safety requirements must be met before the boat is allowed to embark on any journey. This means no leaks, among other things. Individuals must take responsibility for any repairs on their boats, and be willing to face the consequences of not obeying the law. Garbage dumping from boats, including cruise liners, must be strictly prohibited. Any dumping should be reported by any who observe it, and promptly met with the consequences of their actions. Each person can do his or her part in disposing of garbage responsibly.

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Oil spills. Retrieved February 11, 2006, from http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/oil_spills.htm
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