The Use of Music and Song in ESL Instruction

Even a beginning teacher quickly learns that every classroom is different, whether it is due to students' behavior, learning styles, or cultural backgrounds. This is also true for students who are English language learners; their cultural, educational, and language backgrounds can be strikingly different. It cannot be assumed that every English language learner needs the same instruction. Therefore, a diverse array of teaching methods should be examined in order to best instruct these students in both language and content areas.

One technique that has been recently given attention is using music to improve the students' ability to learn a second language. The argument for use of music in English language instruction is both logically sound and supported by research; however, the form that music instruction takes can differ greatly. Music can also be integrated with other methods, such as sign language or therapeutic techniques. Not only has music been found to be effective in improving language skills, it can also improve motivation, self-esteem, and classroom cohesiveness. With further research, the use of music in second language instruction could become a widespread technique.

Theories behind the use of music in language instruction

Within the past 20 years, using music to teach content areas has become more accepted. From a superficial standpoint, it seems appropriate that music could be used to teach young children to read. Harp (1989) eloquently stated that "music and reading go together because singing is a celebration of language...Children bring this natural 'music' of language with them to the task of learning to read, and so using singing to teach reading draws on this natural understanding."

Music also has several characteristics in common with reading; for example, reading music is done from left to right, just like reading a book. It also requires rhythmic eye movement, just as reading requires (Diamantes, Young, & McBee, 2002). Music can also be integrated into other content area instruction. For example, mathematics can be related to music as music involves counting, number recognition, fractions, and use of symbols to represent meaning (Diamantes, Young, & McBee, 2002).

Kennedy and Scott (2005) propose several reasons for utilizing music in ESL instruction. The first reason is to improve language comprehension. The second reason behind using music in language instruction is to tear down cultural barriers between students. Music is very solidly rooted in most cultures; therefore, it is an obvious choice for improving cultural knowledge and acceptance in a multi-cultural and multi-language classroom. In fact, music instruction that is focused on diversity has been found to be significantly increase comfort with people from other cultural backgrounds, and decrease use of racial, ethic, or religious slurs (Standley, 2000). Therefore, not only will instruction integrated with music therapy assist ELL students in learning the language, it will also foster tolerance and acceptance within the classroom. The last reason given by Kennedy and Scott is to enhance specific knowledge using rhythmic representation of information. This can be done both verbally (through singing or speaking) and nonverbally (through instrumentation or movement).

A major argument for using music in second language learning is the Din theory. Krashen (1983) distinguishes between language acquisition and language learning, in the sense that acquisition involves a subconscious awareness of language. That is, second language learners are picking up on subtle aspects of language without even realizing it. The Din phenomenon, or "din in the head", is the term for this subconscious learning and rehearsal of language (Krashen, 1983). Therefore, since this "din in the head" is occurring whether the learner is aware of it or not, it should be capitalized on when considering language instruction. Murphey (1990) expanded on this idea, relating it to getting a song stuck in your head. According to Murphey, the song-stuck-in-my-head (SSIMH) phenomenon is similar to inner speech and rehearsal, otherwise known as the Din phenomenon. Therefore, use of music (especially popular music) has been hypothesized to aid in language acquisition by activating mental rehearsal.

A study by Sevilla (1996) explored whether or not elementary school-aged children report experiencing the Din phenomenon. The sample included both foreign-born and U.S.-born English language learners. A story explaining this phenomenon was read to each child, and the child was asked to relate the story to their own experiences. Sevilla found that 57.5% of the students reported experiencing din. Foreign-born students were significantly more likely to have experienced din. A female student from Iran related her experience: "The word I remember that stuck in my head was 'okay'. I understood the word but I couldn't say it. Part of the time I would hear my friend's voice, the other part was mine. One day, I just said the word, 'okay' to my brother" (Sevilla, 1996). Students in this particular study reported experiencing din as early as five years old, which indicates that even very young children acquire language through subconscious means.

How music is integrated with second language instruction

The use of music or song in second language instruction can take many forms. In fact, it has been referred to as a "holistic approach" (Kennedy & Scott, 2005). As with any method of instruction, it is important to tailor lessons to the individual classrooms and students.

Schunk (1999) pointed out several factors that should be taken into consideration when choosing music to be used in instruction. First, the target vocabulary should be chosen before the music is chosen; the songs chosen are meant to be supplements to meet existing language objectives. The songs should be chosen based on their characteristics as well: "a simple melody, an appropriate vocal range, and repetitive lyrics" (Schunk, 1999).

In the pilot study by Kennedy and Scott (2005), the music therapy component was implemented for 50 minutes a week over 12 weeks. The session contained several different activities, including: movement to music, chanting and playing instruments in unison, and different types of musical games. To ensure that each student participated to the best of their ability, continual encouragement and reinforcement were given by the teachers during each session. Additionally, themes and ideas explored during the music sessions often correlated with themes being taught by their regular ESL classroom teacher.

The type of music therapy that is used not only depends on the language levels of the students, but on their behavioral and emotional characteristics. It is important to remember that learning a second language may not be the only challenge these students face; learning disabilities, attentional or mood disorders may also be present. This topic was explored in a study by Montello and Coons (1998) as related to active versus passive group music therapy. The active or "music-making" music therapy allowed students to reproduce rhythms on percussion instruments, and eventually improvisation. The passive or "music-listening" approach involved the students listening to various music selections and sharing their thoughts. Montello and Coons found that although active group music therapy was effective for students with attentional disorders, it became very difficult for those students to focus when in a group larger than two or three other students. Additionally, they recommend that passive music therapy be used initially to allow the students to become more comfortable in the group setting. Once the students are more open, teachers can begin to encourage active participation. As with both classroom and therapy situations, it is important for children to feel safe and welcomed in their environment.

Who can benefit from music in second language instruction?

The research on using music and song in language instruction has included with many differing characteristics and backgrounds. For example, the use of music or music therapy in instruction has been found to benefit students of varying ages. In the study by Schunk (1999), which paired singing and the use of sign language (ASL), the subjects were early elementary school students who had just begun the ESL program. Studies by Kennedy and Scott (2005) and Montello and Coons (1996) both explored how music benefited preadolescent or middle school-aged children. The earlier that intensive and creative language instruction can begin, the better; however, students of any age can profit from this type of learning.

Music therapy and language instruction has been found to be effective for students of many racial or ethnic backgrounds. Montello and Coons (1998) included Caucasian, African-American, and Hispanic students from a wide range of socioeconomic backgrounds in their research on music therapy. The study by Kennedy and Scott used an entirely Hispanic sample. Additionally, the students have varied by first language spoken, as well as their proficiency in English. Kennedy and Scott's sample included both high and low-functioning students (2005). Both groups were found to significantly benefit from the use of song in language instruction. The study by Schunk (1999) included a diverse group of students who spoke several different languages; the most predominant languages were Spanish, Hmong, and Lao. These students were classified as either non-speakers or limited English proficient (LEP). This supports the idea of the Din phenomenon; that students can gain knowledge of a language even if their formal English language instruction has been limited.

Research in this area has been done in several regions of the United States, and in both rural and urban areas. Kennedy and Scott (2005) pulled their sample of students from a middle school in a rural area in the southeastern U.S. The pilot study by Schunk (1999) was implemented in the Midwestern United States. Finally, the study by Montello and Coons (1996) took place in an urban public school in New York City.

Finally, the study by Montello and Coons (1996) also explored how music therapy and instruction benefits students with learning, behavioral, or mood difficulties. The subjects were preadolescents enrolled in special education for emotional disturbances, learning disabilities, and/or attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Although these students were not English language learners, the results from this particular study can be applicable to those ELLs who do experience these difficulties.

Benefits and uses of music therapy in instruction

Using music or music therapy to teach English language learners has been shown to be effective (Kennedy & Scott, 2005; Schunk, 1999). Although some specific aspects of learning English have been explored, there is still more to discover concerning the benefits of this type of instruction.

One possible use of music and song is to increase storytelling skills. In a pilot study that used music therapy techniques to teach ESL students, it was found that these students' ability to retell stories in English was significantly stronger than students in the control group (Kennedy & Scott, 2005). The most promising finding was that their ability to accurately sequence events and use correct grammar when retelling stories was also stronger than those students who did not experience music therapy. This tells us that not only does music increase students' ability to rephrase speech using their own words, it does not negatively effect their grasp on the more pragmatic aspects of language.

Another technique that has been shown to benefit second language learners is the use of American Sign Language (ASL). In a study by Schunk (1999), it was determined that elementary ESL students who were taught to use ASL made significantly greater gains in receptive vocabulary than students who were not. In addition, pairing signing with singing of text was found to be the most effective in building receptive vocabulary, as compared with signing alone, singing alone, and simply saying the text aloud.

Not only does the use of music and/or signing techniques assist in giving visual cues for second language learners, it also helps create a positive environment in which to learn these new skills. Active participation, in the form of either singing or sign language, also increases the motivation of these students. This is especially helpful for younger elementary students who are just beginning to learn English. Even if they may not understand all the words, they are actively engaged in the learning process.

One of the important outcomes of the study by Montello and Coons (1998) was that every student, regardless of difficulties, benefited from the group music therapy sessions. In fact, the most significant change for these students was decreases in aggression and hostility. Based on this finding, Montello and Coons suggest that music therapy became an alternate outlet for feelings of frustration, anger, and aggression. This is very promising, as turning negative thoughts into safe and creative expression is an important life lesson.

Measuring progress

An important component of any instructional method is a means of assessing student gains; second language instruction through music is no different in this respect. According to Kennedy and Scott (2005), the preferred method of assessing these students is by using language profiency assessments specifically geared towards second language learners, rather than a broad assessment of language abilities. Examples of such assessments endorsed by Kennedy and Scott include checklists, portfolios, and performance-based tasks (2005).

The use of standardized tests is possible; however, it may not allow these students to fully demonstrate their abilities. Additionally, as with any instructional assessments, these should be done frequently and not interfere with instructional time. In the study by Schunk (1999), assessment of student improvement included adaptations of existing test protocols, including the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). In order to measure other gains, such as motivation and classroom behavior, teacher report forms such as the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist can be used (Montello & Coons, 1998).

Conclusion

The research on using music and singing to enhance language development is very promising, especially for English language learners. Music therapy techniques foster language development in areas such as storytelling and receptive vocabulary; in addition, it creates a positive learning environment for children who may be unsure of their abilities. Rather than simply drilling students on vocabulary and grammar, using creative techniques such as music allows students to be more playful and creative in their learning. This can result in increased motivation to learn, more on-task behaviors, and a stronger group cohesiveness in the classroom.

Future studies should focus on broadening the picture of how music helps these students acquire language skills. In particular, research should be done on how knowledge gained through these methods translates to real-life use of a second language. Additionally, the use of music to develop other language skills, such as reading and writing, should be explored. Overall, the outlook on the use of music therapy techniques in English language instruction is very bright.

References

Diamantes, T., Young, K.M., & McBee, K. (2002). An analysis of reading and content area skills improvement through music instruction. Reading Improvement, 39(3), 114-118.

Harp, B. (1989). When the principal asks-why are your kids singing during reading time? The Reading Teacher, January, 326-327.

Krashen, S. D. (1983). The Din in the Head, input, and the language acquisition device. Foreign Language Annals, 16, 41-44.

Kennedy, R., & Scott, A. (2005). A pilot study: The effects of music therapy intervention on middle school students' ESL skills. The Journal of Music Therapy, 42(4), 244-261.

Montello, L., & Coons, E.E. (1998). Effects of active versus passive group music therapy on preadolescents with emotional, learning, and behavioral disorders. The Journal of Music Therapy, 35(1), 49-67.

Murphey, T. (1990). The song stuck in my head phenomenon: A melodic Din in the LAD? System, 18(1), 53-64.

Schunk, H.A. (1999). The effect of singing paired with signing on receptive vocabulary skills of elementary ESL students. The Journal of Music Therapy, 36(2), 110-124.

Sevilla, J.M. (1996). Involuntary rehearsal of second language at the elementary level: Do elementary school children experience the din in the head? System, 24(1), 101-105.

Standley, J.M. (2000). Increasing prospective music educators' tolerance for student diversity. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 19(1), 27-32.