The Nineteenth Century Middle Class: An Overview

In order to begin this investigation, it is first helpful to consider the specific social and cultural discourse that was taking place in the nineteenth century. By identifying the specific context of social and cultural change, a more integral understanding of how interiors of the middle class were developed will be elucidated. Critically reviewing what has been written about middle class development in the nineteenth century, it becomes evident that for most middle class individuals, the nineteenth century brought with it a host of economic and social improvements. These improvements made it possible for middle class individuals and families to be exposed to literature, art and high culture for the first time. As a result of improvements in overall standards of living, middle class citizens became more interested in aesthetic properties (Kete, 2000).

Other authors examining the middle class that developed during the nineteenth century argue that individuals in this class were granted a status that fell between the rich and the working class. According to Fulcher and Scott (2003) "those who came to be called the middle classes are those employed in professional, managerial, administrative and various technical occupations in business and public sector organizations. This includes such occupations as personnel managers, doctors and civil servants" (p. 709). Although individuals in the middle class worked, they were considered "gentlemen" because of the status of their professions. As such, the middle class enjoyed a lifestyle that was notably more financially secure and stable than that which existed in the working class. However, this lifestyle was not as lavish as that seen in the upper class of society.

Clearly, what the research on the middle class of the nineteenth century clearly suggests is that this social stratification was just beginning to emerge during the nineteenth century. Society had developed to the point that specific economic divisions could clearly be noted. While the middle class is today often associated with the working class, during the nineteenth century, it is evident that the middle class distinguished itself from the working class by the specific professions that were undertaken by individual members. The middle class of the nineteenth century were not as financially independent as the upper classes. However, these individuals did enjoy comfortable lifestyles that made it possible for individual members to enjoy some of the more aesthetic qualities of life, including art and literature. Thus, as this class became more defined during this time period, it is not surprising to find that the interiors of the middle class began to change as well.

Art During the Nineteenth Century

With the basic context of the middle class in the nineteenth century elucidated, it is now possible to consider the art of the nineteenth century. As noted earlier, the artwork of any given time reflects the underlying cultural and social themes that were present. A review of nineteenth century art clearly reflects this statement. Critically reviewing what has been written about nineteenth century art, it becomes clear that the art work that was developed during this time period reflected the notable social changes that were occurring in society. Nineteenth century art encompasses such broad movements as impressionism, romanticism, symbolism and orientalism. As society moved toward a more mechanized state through the process of industrialism, artists attempted to fight back against this harsh reality though their work. The end result has been the development of a wide range of art forms during this time period. Describing the art of the nineteenth century, Hofmann (1961) makes the following observations:

For it touches a conflict which went on throughout the century and caused the polarization of its creative powers, a conflict which men sought again and again to resolve. It was the conflict between allegory and reality, the conflict between the claims of higher truth and fidelity to objective fact, between life as we imagine it and life as we discover it to be (p. 22).

Hofmann argues that the internal conflict created by art and society during the nineteenth century is what drove the development of art. As a result of this conflict, a wide range of art forms became prominent during this time period.

While Hofmann elucidates the dynamism that took place in development of art in the nineteenth century, Bann (2004) explores the social changes that impacted the way in which art was developed and disseminated. According to Bann, the nineteenth century brought with it a host of innovations that made it possible for reproducing art work. According to this author, lithography began to become more prominent during this time. "Lithography enabled graphic art to illustrate everyday life, and it began to keep pace with printing (p. 707). As a result, a larger portion of the population was being exposed to different styles of art and architecture. "It was these techniques that enabled the new magazines to introduce their readers to exotic locations, historical buildings and the principles of popular science" (p. 707).

When the proliferation of art is coupled with the development of the middle class in the nineteenth century, it is not surprising to find that more individuals in the middle class were becoming interested in modern art. Because middle class individuals had both the financial mobility, time and interest art began to expand from its Victorian roots-a principally upper class domain-they were able not only to take an active interest in art, but also to influence its overall development. The formation of the middle class and its overall socioeconomic status essentially made it a plausible venue for artists to expand their work. Further, as technology grew and expanded, artists could disseminate their work to a larger audience. Thus, it appears as if the nineteenth century brought about the expansion of art as more than just an upper class commodity. In the nineteenth century art became more common place and began to be more widely recognized by other social groups.

Interiors of the Nineteenth Century Middle Class

With a clear understanding of the social, cultural and technological changes that were occurring during this time period, it is now possible to consider how the development of the interior of nineteenth century middle class homes. A precursory overview of what has been written in this subject seems to suggest that the middle class interiors of America were somewhat different from the interiors that developed in Europe. For this reason, this investigation will first consider the development of middle class interiors in nineteenth century Europe and America separately.

Interiors in Europe

Considering first the interiors of the middle class in Europe, Rice (2004) makes the observation that interiors of this time period became heavily influenced by the specific architecture and art that had been used by the upper class in the development of their interior space. In an effort to describe this process Rice makes the following observations: "In this way, the interior emerges with conceptual specificity in the context of bourgeois domesticity. It is not simply architectural, but it borrows on the enclosure provided by architecture to be articulated though decoration... In this sense the interior is also not simply spatial, but is equally an imaged-based phenomenon" (p. 276). Rice goes on to note that the interiors of this time period attempted to capture a "doubled experience" in which "an inhabitation of the interior is caught between material and immaterial registers" (p. 276).

What is perhaps most interesting about the observations made by Rice is that they clearly demonstrate the dynamic atmosphere that artists and architects attempted to capture during this time period. For the upper and middle classes the interior of the home became more than just a place to live, it became a place for relaxation and escape from the industrialized mechanization that surrounded society: "...the interior emerge as a space separated from sites of work and productive labor, and becomes a place of refuge from the city and its new, alienating forms of experience. In the interior, subjects confront themselves in psychologically charged ways through the medium of objects and furnishings" (p. 277). What this effectively suggests is that the interiors of this time period were expanding both in terms of their functionality and the overall level of comfort provided.

In addition to considering the specific context of how the interior was conceptualized during this time period, Rice also examines the psychology behind the decisions made with respect to the interior. According to Rice, the interior of the middle class in the nineteenth century began to symbolize the importance of individualization and privacy. Rice contends that while architectural developments had been used in the past to create private or individualized spaces, by the nineteenth century, the specific context of how interior space could be shaped began to change: "...it was the choosing and arranging of object more than the physical nature of the space that marked off a private, individualized interior" (p. 279). Rice also notes that in the middle class of France, wallpaper was most commonly used as a means to individualize a particular space. When individuals moved into a new home, they would use new wallpaper as a means to make the space "their own."

Individualization and privacy were not the only concerns that were taken into consideration when developing middle class interiors. Rice argues that for many individuals the interior had to convey a sense of stability. "People become obsessed with the desire that no wall or floor be left bare; bare floors became a mark of poverty" (p. 279). Although Rice argues that the desire to create stability in the interior has been widely seen in other time periods, Rice notes that the interiors of the nineteenth century are unique in this dimension because they reflect an almost neurotic desire to create stability. Rice asserts that individuals became obsessed with "drapery, slip covers, casings and upholstery." As described by Rice, the interior of the nineteenth century sought to provide security and stability by ensuring that every aspect of the interior environment had been personalized by the owner. Unfortunately, this process became one that was exacerbated over time.

Not surprisingly, Rice does note the impact of technology on the proliferation of the interior styles of the nineteenth century. Rice argues that as images of the upper and middle class interiors began to be reproduced in various publications, overall interest in the development of interiors became more prominent. The upper class had photographs of their interiors taken and placed into publication. As the middle class became more aware of print media, their upward mobility prompted them to begin developing interior spaces that matched those used by the rich. Subsequently, these images and styles were eventually passed down to the working class as well. Thus, the middle class interiors, while reflective of specific attitudes and needs, were also an attempt of the middle class to capture the spirit and style of the upper class.

As related by Rice, it becomes evident that the middle class interiors of nineteenth century Europe were heavily influenced by a wide range of variables. Much like the art and literature produced during this time period, the interior of the nineteenth century was a clear reflection of efforts to escape the mechanized world that had been created as a result of industrialization. Middle class individuals, although they had attained a higher position in society than individuals in the working class, still dealt with the stress and pressure of everyday life. Thus, the interiors created were reflective of the attitudes toward upward mobility and the need to create an internal space that provided comfort and an individualized atmosphere that could nurture the weary worker. As technology advanced and the middle class was able to garner a more integral understanding of how the rich lived, they began to develop their interiors based on the images presented in various publications.

Interiors in the United States

While the specific interiors that developed in Europe during the nineteenth century do indeed capture the spirit of the art and architectural development that was taking place during this time period, it is important to note that researchers examining the interiors have noted that distinctive interiors did develop in America. For this reason, an examination of middle class interiors of the nineteenth century should include some examination of what has been written about this development as well.

Mumford (1959) in his examination of the development of interiors in nineteenth century America makes the observation that in the first half of this century, the United States was not experiencing the social and cultural upheaval that was occurring in Europe. This is due, in part, to the fact that the United States did not begin its industrial revolution until the late nineteenth century. As such, the specific forms and attitudes that were used in the development of architecture and interior spaces were notably different in the US than they were in Europe. According to Mumford, styles reflected during this time period were more reflective of the art that had been used in the past: "...the genteel architects of the nineteenth century took refuge in the dead forms of earlier cultures. If they were reluctant to change the old systems of construction, so as to use more fully new materials and technical processes, they were even more reluctant to abandon the old masks, hallowed by long use in church and palace" (p. 7). What this effectively suggests is that while European interiors were growing and developing, the interiors that developed in America were more reflective of the traditional history of art and architecture in social and cultural discourse.

To illustrate the differences that existed between the interiors in America and those in Europe, Mumford goes on to argue that during the nineteenth century unpainted woods became a common feature in the interiors of American homes. "The new domestic tradition in America had still another source, a new love of color and texture, a new feeling for the natural, unmodified use of wood and stone" (p. 12). As a result wood and stone used for construction were frequently left exposed in the interior of the home. This stands in sharp contrast to Europeans who felt that they needed to cover every dimension of a room in order to personalize it. In the American interior, the simplicity of the materials used in the process of construction was aesthetically pleasing to home owners.

In addition to the fact that exposed construction materials were acceptable for the interior of the home, Mumford also notes that the specific floor plan used in the construction of interiors was also quite simple. As noted by Mumford, "along with this went a new informality in living, which manifested itself in a peculiarly American type of open plan for the common living quarters" (p. 13). This could be well seen in the homes of the West when compared with homes in the East:

One feature in the plans of Western city dwellings must be very clearly defined. This is their openness. Not only are windows upon the average larger than in the East but they are more frequent, as are also bay windows, oriels, etc., while in the general plan rooms are more closely related, openings between rooms wider, and single swinging-doors less frequent (p. 13).

Mumford goes on to note that in order to support this interior design, there were often no doors separating rooms on the first floor of the house. This promoted the open floor plan and allowed for the interior space of one room to flow into another.

When compared with the interiors that developed in Europe during this same time period, it is evident that the interiors developed in America were indeed notably different. What is perhaps most interesting about these differences however, is that they are clearly reflective of the different social and cultural environments that existed in region during this time period. By the early nineteenth century many European countries were deeply entrenched in industrialism. This was not the case in the United States. Thus, it is not surprising to find that the interiors created in each culture were notably different.

Conclusion

Reviewing all of the information that has been presented in this investigation, it becomes evident that the development of the middle class interior that took place in nineteenth century Europe was quite dramatic overall. Spurred by the development of industrialism, architects and artists attempted to create interior spaces that provided individuals with a refuge from the harsh realities that existed in everyday life. While these interiors were first popular in the upper class, the advancement of technology and the ability to replicate images of upper class interiors made it possible for middle class citizens to mimic these designs in their own homes. Clearly, the interiors that were developed during this time period were distinctive and reflective of both the social and cultural changes that were taking place during this time period. Interestingly, even though the interiors that developed in nineteenth century America were different from those in Europe, they also reflected specific cultural and social development during this time period.

In the end, the dynamic nature of change that is reflected in the art of the nineteenth century is also reflected in the interiors and décor of the time period. In many respects all of the changes that took place in art and architecture were a clear response to the negative and harsh realities that were produced as a result of industrialism. As such, an examination of the interiors of the nineteenth century clearly demonstrates a desire of individuals to insulate themselves from the external world. Perhaps by creating internal worlds that were warm and inviting, individuals could find the solace that they needed to protect themselves, at least on a psychological level. Clearly, this examination provides a basis for understanding how modern interiors evolved into such personalized, private spaces.

References

Bann, S. (2000). Ingres in reproduction. Art History, 23(5), 706-726. In this article the author explores the various methods that have been used for image reproduction. The author traces the development of various techniques to demonstrate how art became more widely disseminated in society. The focus of the article is on photography; however, the author does provide considerable historical development of other reproduction techniques.

Fulcher, J., & Scott, J. (2003). Sociology (2^nd Ed). New York: Oxford University Press. This text covers a wide range of issues that explicate various practices and principles found in Sociology. The text provides a clear understanding of the specific ways in which class stratification occurs. This information is critical to understanding how society has evolved over the course of history.

Hofmann, W. (1961). The Earthly Paradise: Art in the Nineteenth Century. New York: G. Braziller. In this text, the author explores the social and cultural forces that lead to the development of nineteenth century art. By examining both social discourse and specific works created during this time, the author is able to demonstrate the powerful forces shaping art during this time period. The author is also able to demonstrate how these conflicts are illustrated in particular genres and works.

Kete, M.L. (2000). Sentimental Collaborations: Mourning and Middle-Class Identity in Nineteenth Century America. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. In this text, Kete examines the development of the middle class in nineteenth century America. Overall, the author notes how improvements in economics influenced the ability of middle class families to enjoy a greater breadth of art and literature. Kete argues that this process had a profound impact on the development of society during this time period and beyond.

Mumford, L. (1959). Roots of Contemporary American Architecture. New York: Grove Press. In this text, the author explores the development of contemporary American architecture. Although the focus of the text is the development of buildings and landscapes, the author does consider how the interiors of American homes developed from the eighteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century. The author maintains that architecture in America evolved from the interior to the exterior.

Rice, C. (2004). Rethinking histories of the interior. Journal of Architecture, 9(3), 275-287. In this article, the author considers the specific conceptualization of the interiors of the nineteenth century. Relating class and social variables, the author is able to demonstrate how the middle class interior evolved during this time period. The author is able to demonstrate that there were a host of issues that impacted the outcomes produced during this time.